LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

University  of  California. 


Class 


ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 


2^^ 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK   •    BOSTON   •    CHICAGO 
ATLANTA  •    SAN   FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Lmrrro 

LONDON  •    BOMBAY  •    CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE   MACMILLAN   CO.   OP  CANADA.   Ltd 

TORONTO 


ATTENTION  AND 
INTEREST 

A  STUDY  IN  PSYCHOLOGY  AND 
EDUCATION 


BY 
FELIX  ARNOLD,  Ph.D. 


OF  THE 

UNIVERS/TY 

OF 

^^^i-fFonN*^ 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

1910 

AU  rights  reserved 


A7 


mum 


Copyright  1910 
By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.    Published  February.  1010 


»  MASON-HENRY 

STRACUBK,  NEW  YORK 


Preface 

The  present  essay  on  the  psychology  of 
attention  and  interest  is  an  attempt  to  clarify  and 
arrange  the  many  facts  that  have  been  brought 
to  light  by  numerous  experiments  in  the  psycho- 
logical laboratories.  I  have  felt  myself  bound, 
not  to  uphold  any  special  theory  or  school,  but  to 
present  the  facts  as  they  seem  to  be.  The 
exposition  of  the  subject  under  the  categories, 
'description,'  'illustration,*  'development,'  'ex- 
planation,' and  'definition,'  is  in  line  with  the 
more  modern  and  scientific  presentation  as  seen 
in  books  on  physiology,  embryology,  zoology, 
medicine,  etc.  Some  may  differ  with  me  as  re- 
gards the  exact  demarcation  of  the  different 
aspects  of  the  subject.  The  facts,  however,  are 
not  changed  because  of  any  scheme  of  presenta- 
tion. My  chief  obligations  are  to  J.  M.  Baldwin, 
J.  McKeen  Cattell,  E.  L.  Thorndike,  E.  B. 
Tichener,  F.  J.  E.  Woodbridge,  and  other  ex- 
ponents of  the  scientific  attitude  towards  facts 
and  the  presentation  of  facts. 

Felix  Aenold 

New  York  City. 

V 

210598 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/attentioninteresOOarnorich 


CONTENTS 

PART  I— ATTENTION 

CHAPTER  I 
The  Given  Situation  in  Attention       ...       3 

CHAPTER  II 
The  Objective  Aspect  of  Attention   ...     26 

CHAPTER  III 

The  Psychophysical  Aspect  of  Attention       .     96 

CHAPTER  IV 
The  Physiological  Aspect  of  Attention  .       .  136 

CHAPTER  V 
Recapitulation 176 

PART  II— INTEREST 

CHAPTER  VI 
The  Motor  Aspect  of  Interest     ....  183 

CHAPTER  VII 
The  Ideal  Aspect  of  Interest       ....  208 

CHAPTER  VIII 

Recapitulation .i       .       .  224* 

vii 


«1U  CONTE^fTS 

PART  III— EDUCATION 

I 

CHAPTER  IX 
Attention  in  the  Classroom ^1 

CHAPTER  X 
Interest  in  the  Classroom 264i 

INDEXES 

Index  of  Names 267 

Index  of  Subjects J870 


PART  I 
ATTENTION 


Parti 

Attention 


CHAPTER  I 

THE  GIVEN  SITUATION  IN  ATTENTION 

§  I.  DESCRIPTION 

1.  The  Subject-object  Relation.  In  a 
loose  and  popular  manner,  the  object,  as  differ- 
ent from  the  subject  is  readily  recognised.  The 
man  who  picks  up  a  book  to  read,  the  woman  who 
selects  goods  for  a  dress,  the  child  who  plays  wdth 
the  toy,  each,  in  a  vague  way,  distinguishes  an 
object  which  exists  apart  from  the  self.  There 
may  be  present  no  intensive  analysis  of  the 
nature  of  such  existence,  or  of  the  meaning  of 
the  relationship,  but  for  the  practical  purposes  of 
usage  and  experience,  the  object,  as  existing 
apart  from  the  subject,  has  a  more  or  less  utili- 
tarian or  esthetic  value.  In  scientific  research 
and  laboratory  experimentation  a  more  rigid  in- 
terpretation of  'object'  is  made.  Close  analysis 
is  necessary  sharply  to  define  exactly  what  is 
^subject'  and  what  'object'  in  a  given  situation, 
and  every  effort  is  made  to  eliminate  the  personal 
equation,  emotional  bias,  illusion,  or  other  per- 


4  ATTENTION  AND  INTEKEST 

sonal  factors.  The  astronomer  limits  his  field  to 
a  portion  of  the  heavens,  the  botanist  busies  him- 
self with  a  bud,  a  seed,  a  root  fibre,  the  geologist 
restricts  his  activity  during  a  given  investigation 
to  some  strata,  rock  formation,  or  what  not,  and 
so  with  investigators  in  other  lines.  Some  situa- 
tion is  selected  and  treated  as  an  object  apart 
from  the  self.  Many  situations  in  the  course  of 
an  investigation  are  so  considered  and  made  the 
object  of  close  study. 

The  psychologist  differs  in  nowise  from  other  # 
scientific  investigators.  In  his  work  he  deals 
with  specific  situations,  and  examines,  interprets, 
analyses,  and  reasons  much  like  scientists  in  other 
fields.  His  point  of  attack  may  be  different,  his 
interpretation  may  deal  with  qualitative  or  with 
quantitative  aspects  differing  from  those  se- 
lected by  a  botanist  or  a  physicist,  but  his  basis  is 
much  like  theirs.  If  his  work  is  to  have  any 
value,  it  must  be  based  on  situations  which  have 
a  concrete  filling  of  some  kind,  on  objects  which 
are  more  or  less  definite,  on  situations  which, 
while  they  are  under  investigation,  must  be  con- 
sidered apart  from  the  self  which  is  concerned 
with  the  experimentation.  The  scientific  point 
of  view  is  one  which  is  recognised  by  the  psycholo- 
gist, but  which  is  seldom  held  by  cultured  work- 


GIVEN  SITUATION  IN  ATTENTION       5 

ers  in  other  fields.  The  mind  is  usually  considered 
by  such  as  an  ethereal  will-o'-the-wisp,  a  spirit 
which  appears,  now  here,  now  there,  and  which 
is  so  evanescent  that  one  can  speculate  about  it 
with  safety,  draw  deductive  conclusions,  and 
construct  hypotheses  which  can  not  be  tested  in 
concrete  situations.  That  popular  opinion  is 
wrong  in  this  connection  will  be  readily  under- 
stood by  one  who  has  seen  the  laboratory  study 
of  mental  processes.  Not  the  mind,  but  some 
situation  is  studied  with  special  reference  to  con- 
sciousness. iA  given  field  is  made  the  center  of 
attention,  tested  according  to  some  definite 
method,  and  studied  in  an  inductive  manner.^ 

In  general,  the  subject-object  relation  is  one, 
which,  from  long  habit,  is  accepted  as  a  matter  of 
course  in  most  fields.  This  dual  relationship  fits 
in  with  the  nature  of  things,  stands  the  test  of 
experience,  of  application,  of  work,  and  is  be- 
lieved in,  regardless  of  metaphysical  or  other 
disquisitions  to  the  contrary.  From  this  point 
of  view  all  else  stands  opposed  to  the  self.  Self 
and  the  rest  of  the  universe  constitute  the  whole. 
No  doubt  the  rest  of  the  universe  exists  for  the 
self  as  an  'other'  of  related  parts,  as  a  whole 
which  is  affected  by  every  act  of  the  individual. 
In  actual  practice  so  extended  an  'other'  is  nar- 


€  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

rowed  down  to  some  definite  situation  which  can 
be  manipulated  and  controlled.  In  a  piece  of 
work,  a  laboratory  experiment,  for  example,  the 
individual  is  not  immediately  concerned  with  the 
rest  of  the  universe.  He  may  affect  it,  his  actions 
may  result  in  a  redistribution  of  relationships, 
but  this  is  no  direct  concern  of  his.  He  is  usually 
concerned  with  only  what  is  under  his  immediate 
control.  The  rest  of  the  universe  is  not  so  much 
'object,'  as  'objective'  to  him.  'The  object  is 
rather  the  point  of  junction  between  the  indi- 
vidual and  the  rest  of  the  system,  between  himself 
and  all  that  is  'objective.'/  Some  limited  portion 
constitutes  for  the  time  the  point  of  junction  be- 
tween the  individual  and  what  is  objective.  The 
individual  localises  his  efforts  and  restricts  the 
extent  of  his  control. 

2.  The  Point  of  Junction.  Toint  of  junc- 
tion' corresponds  loosely  to  what  is  called  'object,' 
as,  for  example,  the  material  in  an  experiment,  a 
place  of  business,  a  reading  room  in  a  library,  a 
tool,  or  what  not.  Different  kinds  of  such  ob- 
jects, however,  may  be  distinguished. 

(a)  Real,  As  one  looks  before  one  and  con- 
siders what  one  sees,  the  object  in  such  a  case  is 
visual  and  somewhat  extended.  If  touch  and 
motor  control  enter  in  the  determination  of  the 


GIVEN  SITUATION  IN  ATTENTION       7 

object,  the  field  at  once  becomes  extremely  nar- 
rowed. If  other  senses  are  involved,  the  field 
receives  a  richer  content  and  means  more  to  the 
individual  who  is  in  control.  The  quality  and 
the  extent  of  the  point  of  junction  thus  depend 
upon  the  senses  which  are  involved  in  the  experi- 
ences. Any  sense  may  mediate  a  point  of  junc- 
tion. We  may  have  a  visual  field,  an  auditory  or 
a  tactile  field.  So,  too,  a  situation  may  be  deter- 
mined by  all  together.  Usually  several  of  the 
senses  are  called  into  play.  An  object  is  seized, 
tested,  taken  apart,  put  under  the  microscope, 
and  controlled  in  as  many  ways  as  possible. 

What  is  before  one  at  any  moment,  what  exists 
as  a  single  pulse  of  apprehension,  therefore,  can 
not  always  be  said  to  constitute  a  situation  given 
in  full.  To  be  given  in  toto,  to  have  the  feel  of 
reality,  a  situation  must  allow  of  reactive  adjust- 
ment, must  be  under  some  kind  of  motor  control. 
Only  as  one  is  before  a  situation  which  can  be 
manipulated  and  reconstructed  in  a  practical 
way,  only  as  one  can  test  the  visual  field  by  active 
selection  and  adjustment,  can  it  be  considered 
as  basic  and  real.  An  essential  aspect  of  a  basic 
situation  is  this  impelling  and  necessary  character 
which  it  receives  through  touch  and  motor  con- 
trol.    It  may  be  denied  metaphysically,  it  miay 


8  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

be  doubted  philosophically,  but  practically, 
doubt  or  denial  means  destruction.  For  ex- 
ample, tentative  denial  of  a  stone  wall  may  result 
in  a  bruise  or  other  injury.  Scholastic  disbelief 
must  be  swept  aside  when  actual  contact  is 
effected.  Contrariwise,  belief  is  never  so  strong 
as  when  motor  control  reinforces  visual  appre- 
hension. 

The  more  direct  and  immediate  control  is  pos- 
sible when  the  situation  is  beneath  one's  feet  or 
under  one's  hands.  The  various  junctions, 
visual,  auditory,  tactile,  etc.,  can  then  be  bound 
together  by  the  motor.  Such  a  limited  field  is 
further  widened  by  means  which  will  facilitate 
motor  contact.  The  microscope  enlarges  the 
visual  field  without  bringing  it  outside  of  direct 
motor  control,  the  railroad  and  the  telegraph 
enable  one  to  make  as  many  points  of  contact  as 
possible  within  a  given  time,  touch  and  motor 
control  are  aided  by  delicate  instruments,  machin- 
ery does  work  which  the  hands  can  not  do,  and 
so  on.  Where  no  means  exist  for  the  realisation 
of  motor  control,  a  situation  must  remain  incom- 
plete, may,  in  fact,  be  considered  a  chimera.  The 
pot  of  gold  at  the  other  end  of  the  rainbow,  for 
example,  has  still  to  be  felt  as  a  reality. 

(6)  Ideal,    In  an  ideal,  schematic,  and  repre- 


GIVEN  SITUATION  IN  ATTENTION       9 

sentative  sort  of  way  a  situation  may  assume  a 
form  somewhat  removed  from  the  original.  An 
outline,  plan,  picture,  word,  image,  idea,  thought, 
may  take  the  place  of  the  situation  for  the  indi- 
vidual, may,  in  a  number  of  ways,  stand  for  the 
actual  situation.  One  who  wishes  to  buy  a  book, 
for  example,  needs  but  to  utter  the  necessary 
words  in  order  to  realise  his  intention.  'Book'  in 
such  a  case  is  all  that  is  necessary  for  the  purpose. 
If  it  is  to  be  read,  however,  it  must  exist  in  more 
real  form. 

When  a  situation  is  present  in  ideal  form  it 
receives  the  stamp  of  reality  when  it  points  to 
some  foundation  situation  which  can  be  directly 
controlled  in  a  motor  way.  It  receives  a  tinge 
of  the  impelling  and  necessary  nature  of  founda- 
tion situations  only  by  the  feel  of  motor  tenden- 
cies which  impel  realisation.  A  book  which,  when 
thought  of,  calls  forth  tendencies  to  open  and 
touch  it,  is  much  more  real  than  simply  'book' 
spelled  out  or  seen  only  visually.  So,  too,  the 
idea  of  a  plaything  has  reality  for  the  child  when 
he  feels  tendencies  to  play  with  it.  An  ideal 
scheme  can  have  reality  only  as  affecting  prac- 
tice, only  as  it  leads  to  some  basic  situation. 
Until  such  realisation  is  possible  it  must  be 
incomplete,  it  must  exist  much  like  a  visual  situ- 


10  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

ation  which  lies  outside  the  field  of  direct  motor 
control. 

Even  as  partial,  as  schematic  and  formal,  ideas 
and  images  assume  for  the  time  a  form  deter- 
mined in  part  by  foundation  situations.  As  a 
formal  object,  the  thought  exists  in  the  shape  of 
a  word,  diagram,  outline,  or  expression.  The 
formal  aspect  of  thought  and  ideation  receives 
its  stability  by  the  same  means  which  give  sta- 
bility to  basic  situations.  Motor  control  is  called 
into  service  for  the  purpose  of  fixing  the  formal 
elements  of  ideal  situations.  Speech,  writing, 
drawing,  illustration,  construction,  etc.,  give  to 
images  and  ideas  a  form  which  enables  them  to 
receive  further  verification  in  application  and 
practice.  In  ideal  situations  we  can  not  readily 
escape  motor  control.  Images  which  are  so  flit- 
ting and  transitory  as  to  be  outside  the  bounds  of 
motor  control  and  definite  realisation  of  some 
sort,  practical  or  esthetic,  must  stand  outside  the 
pale  of  belief.  As  ideal  situations  they  can  have 
little  value. 

(c)  Possible,  Ideal  situations  which  have 
arisen  out  of  immediate  experience  and  direct 
control  naturally  have  the  feel  of  reality  to  a 
greater  degree  than  ideas  or  images  which  have 
been  acquired  in  a  more  indirect  way.     If,  for 


GIVEN  SITUATION  IN  ATTENTION      11 

example,  one  has  seen  snow,  felt  it,  and  handled 
it,  one  will  have  a  greater  belief  in  its  existence, 
will  read  a  reality  into  the  word  *snow'  more 
readily  than  the  savage  who  has  simply  heard  of 
it.  Much  of  what  is  given  in  instruction,  in 
reading,  in  conversation,  etc.,  has  a  reality  only 
in  an  indirect  manner.  Upon  the  basis  of  what- 
ever experience  has  been  acquired,  a  number  of 
ideal  situations  acquire  a  reality  in  terms  of 
transferred  control.  One  may  not  have  seen  an 
emu,  but  if  one  is  told  that  it  is  a  bird  similar  to 
the  ostrich,  one  more  readily  gives  the  term  a 
reality  which  can  be  tested  in  some  immediate, 
concrete  situation.  So,  too,  one  may  never  have 
been  in  China,  but  actual  situations  before  one, 
ideal  situations  in  the  form  of  pictures,  descrip- 
tions, and  the  like,  give  one  a  basis  which  may  be 
transferred  to  the  possible  situation  implied 
in  the  term  'China.'  The  situation  is  possible  in 
that  there  is  a  certain  belief  in  its  existence,  in 
possible  control  and  reaction  in  a  sensorimotor 
manner.  One  feels  sure,  for  example,  that  China 
exists,  that  travel  to  it  is  possible,  that  certain 
reactions  may  take  place  in  it,  that  control  in  it 
is  much  like  that  under  present  conditions. 

The  possible,  it  is  seen,  is  a  form  of  the  ideal, 
but  it  is  a  form  in  which  transferred  motor  coeffi- 


12  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

cients  are  called  into  service  to  give  backing  to 
belief  in  what  is  considered  possible.  Often 
one  will  believe  in  the  reality  of  a  possible  situ- 
ation which  to  others  is  just  as  surely  a  chimera. 
The  broader  and  deeper  the  foundation  of  ex- 
perience, the  stronger  will  be  the  belief  in  situa- 
tions which,  to  the  untrained  mind,  seem  to  have 
no  reality.  The  situation,  for  example,  which  was 
a  possible  one  for  Columbus  and  the  early  navi- 
gators, did  not  excite  the  same  belief  in  the 
people  about  him.  It  became,  to  some  extent,  a 
real  situation,  when  actual  control  was  realised. 

§  II.  ILLUSTRATION 

1.  Real.  Real  situations  are  best  illustrated 
by  laboratory  and  similar  experimentation.  Sev- 
eral examples  will  be  given. 

Action  of  Chloroform  and  Ether.  Excise  two 
frogs'  hearts  and  place  each  in  a  watch  glass  containing 
5  cc.  of  Ringer's  fluid.  To  one  add  one  drop  of  pure 
chloroform  and  cover  with  another  watch  glass.  The 
heart  will  become  feeble,  lose  tone,  and  finally  stop  beat- 
ing. It  will  take  about  ten  times  as  much  ether  to  pro- 
duce the  same  effect.  Chloroform  is  ten  times  more 
potent  a  drug  than  ether.^ 

Strike  the  chord  c-e-g  strongly  upon  the  piano  key- 
board, directing  the  attention  to  the  c.     Is  it  intensified? 

^  Practical  Physiology,  by  A.  P.  Beddard,  L.  Hill,  J.  S.  Edkins, 
J.  J.  R.  Mcleod,  and  M.  S.  Pembry,  75. 


GIVEN  SITUATION  IN  ATTENTION      13 

Strike  the  chord  again,  directing  the  attention  to  the  e 
or  g.     Is  the  tone  attended-to  intensified?^ 

Take  two  pieces  of  the  same  green  paper.  Lay  one 
on  a  red  background,  the  other  on  a  background  of  its 
own  color.  Cover  as  before  (with  very  thin  tissue  paper) 
and  compare  the  two  greens.  Do  similarly  with  red  on 
a  green  and  on  a  red  background.^ 

2.  Ideal.  The  two  meanings  of  ideal  should 
not  be  confused.  In  an  ethical  sense,  'ideal'  re- 
fers to  hope  and  aspiration,  in  a  psychological 
sense,  'ideal'  signifies  simply  what  is  representa- 
tive, cognitive,  imaginative,  and  the  like. 

1.  Think  of  a  bunch  of  white  rose-buds,  lying  among 
fern  leaves  in  a  florist's  box. 

(a)  Are  the  colours — the  creamy  white,  the  green,  the 
shiny  white — quite  distinct  and  natural? 

(b)  Do  you  see  the  flowers  in  a  good  light?  Is  the 
image  as  bright  as  the  objects  would  be  if  they  lay  on 
the  table  before  you  ? 

(c)  Are  the  flowers  and  leaves  and  box  well-defined 
and  clear-cut?  Can  you  see  the  whole  group  of  objects 
together,  or  is  one  part  distinctly  outlined  while  the 
others  are  blurred?* 

Etc.,  etc.,  etc. 

As  for  the  scheme  I  had  in  my  head,  it  was  not  a  bad 
one  in  itself.     I  was  to  go  down  the  sandy  spit  that 

^Titchener,  Edward  Bradford,  Experimental  Psychology^ 
l:Pt.  I,  111. 

^  Thorndike,  Edward  L.,  The  Elements  of  Psychology,  232. 
*Titchener,  E.  B.,  Exp.  Psych.,  l:Pt.  I,  198. 


14  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

divides  the  anchorage  on  the  east  from  the  open  sea,  find 
the  white  rock  I  had  observed  last  evening  and  ascertain 
whether  it  was  there  or  not  that  Ben  Gunn  had  hidden 
his  boat;  a  thing  quite  worth  doing  as  I  still  believe. — 
Treasure  Island,  Stevenson. 

Thou  shalt  not  hate  thy  brother  in  thine  heart:  thou 
shalt  in  any  wise  rebuke  thy  neighbour,  and  not  suffer 
sin  upon  him. 

Thou  shalt  not  avenge,  nor  bear  any  grudge  against 
the  children  of  thy  people,  but  thou  shalt  love  thy 
neighbour  as  thyself. — Leviticus,  19. 

3.  Possible.  In  a  possible  situation,  realisation 
may  be  effected,  or  it  may  be  simply  hoped  for. 
Both  are  illustrated  in  the  following. 
Macbeth,  My  dearest  love, 

Duncan  comes  here  to-night. 

Lady  Macbeth.  And  when  goes  hence.'* 

Macbeth,     To-morrow,  as  he  purposes. 
Lady  Macbeth.  O,  never 

Shall  sun  that  morrow  see ! 

And  there  shall  accompany  them  fair  damsels  having 
large  black  eyes ;  resembling  pearls  hidden  in  their  shells : 
as  a  reward  for  that  which  they  shall  have  wrought. 
They  shall  not  hear  therein  any  vain  discourse,  or  any 
charge  of  sin;  but  only  the  salutation,  Peace!  Peace! 
And  the  companions  of  the  right  hand  (how  happy  shall 
the  companions  of  the  right  hand  be!)  shall  have  their 
abode  among  lote  trees  free  from  thorns,  and  trees  of 
mauz  loaded  regularly  with  their  produce  from  top  to 
bottom ;  under  an  extended  shade,  near  a  flowing  water. 


GIVEN  SITUATION  IN  ATTENTION      15 


and  amidst  fruits  in  abundance. — The  Koran,  Sura  LVI, 
Eng.  tr.  by  G.   Sale. 

The  last  passage  is  a  good  illustration  of  trans- 
ferred control.  As  Muir  points  out,  Mohamet 
painted  a  Paradise  which  would  appeal  to  the 
pleasure  loving  Arab,  which  'would  captivate  the 
inhabitant  of  the  thirsty  and  sterile  Mecca.'  In 
this  case  a  basis  of  real  experience  was  used  in 
the  reconstruction  of  an  ideal  Paradise  which 
would  be  believed  in  by  the  Arab.^ 

4.  Illustration  by  Diagram. 


Pig.  I.  A,  real.  B,  ideal.  S,  subject. 
O,  real  object.  O',  ideal  object.  O", 
situation  to  which  the  ideal  refers. 
F,  focus.  M,  margin.  C,  center  of 
control. 

Muir,  William,  The  Life  of  Mohamet,  75. 


16  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

§  III.  DEVELOPMENT 

1.  Stages.  It  is  highly  probable,  that  the 
newly-born  child  is  not  conscious  of  subject  or 
object  in  the  same  manner  as  is  the  grown  adult. 
One  is  so  accustomed  to  look  upon  an  object  as 
having  some  kind  of  existence  apart  from  the 
subject  that  one  tends  to  overlook  the  fact  that 
this  twofold  relationship  is  the  result  of  consid- 
erable development,  the  end  station,  as  it  were, 
of  a  somewhat  complicated  series  of  movements 
on  the  part  of  the  child.  Even  in  the  developed 
consciousness,  it  is  somewhat  difficult  sharply  to 
differentiate  what  is  subject,  and  what  is  object. 
In  philosophy,  for  example,  one  aspect  is  often 
taken  as  basic,  and  the  attempt  is  made  to  ex- 
plain the  other  in  terms  of  it.  In  psychology, 
too,  one  or  the  other  aspect  is  unduly  emphasised. 
As  far  as  attention  is  concerned,  from  the  objec- 
tive side,  it  is  viewed  as  simply  a  state  of  clearness 
and  distinctness.  From  the  subjective  side,  it 
is  sometimes  considered  as  ideal  reinforcement 
or  arrest  of  incoming  impressions,  or,  by  the  older 
writers,  as  a  species  of  mental  activity. 

It  must  be  remembered,  in  the  first  place,  that 
subject  and  object,  though  looked  upon,  in  a 
developed  state,  as  two  distinct  things,  have  ex- 
istence only  in  a  dynamic  relationship,  and,  in 


GIVEN  SITUATION  IN  ATTENTION      17 

the  second  place,  that  each  in  itself  is  an  abstrac- 
tion. We  do  not  have  the  subject,  as  such,  and 
apart  from  some  connection  with  an  object.  So, 
too,  an  object,  by  itself,  means  nothing,  as  far 
as  the  conscious  subject  is  concerned.  An  object 
is  an  object,  only  as  it  affects  a  subject,  only  as 
there  is  action  and  reaction  of  some  sort  between 
the  two.  In  a  state  of  attention,  for  example, 
the  subject  attends  to  some  situation,  and  some 
situation  is  in  the  focus  of  attention.  We  speak 
of  each  in  a  logical  manner  as  having  a  separate 
existence,  but  such  discussion  does  not  affect  the 
situation  as  it  actually  exists.  Continual  treat- 
ment of  these  two  phases,  subjective  and  objec- 
tive, as  isolated  units,  leads  one  to  look  upon 
them  as  units  which  exist  in  independence  of  each 
other.  In  any  conscious  moment,  however,  the 
two  will  be  found  together. 

In  the  first  pulse  of  life  there  is  probably 
neither  self  nor  object  as  a  distinct  phase  of  a 
situation.  There  is  probably  in  the  newly-born 
consciousness  an  undifferentiated  whole,  in  which 
neither  subject  nor  object  stands  out  as  a  distinct 
existential  fact.  The  nearest  state  in  the  adult 
consciousness  is  the  dreamy  condition  usually 
present  just  before  one  goes  to  sleep,  or  when 
one  is  half  asleep,  and  half  awake.    Out  of  this 

2 


18 


ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 


raw  material  are  developed  notions  of  self  and 
object.  In  early  childhood  self  and  object  are 
often  confused,  and  the  gross  division  between 
the  two  is  the  result  of  considerable  development. 
When  the  object  is  looked  upon  as  more  or  less 
distinct  from  the  self,  attention,  though  existing 
from  the  very  beginning,  can  be  considered  as  a 
separate,  conscious  process.  The  three  stages 
may  be  illustrated  by  the  following  diagrams, 
each  of  which  represents  a  phase  of  a  compli- 
cated process  which  at  times  combines  the  other 
phases : 


A,  B 

Fia.   II.      A,    subject    and   object   not   differentiated, 
object  (O).     C,  object  in  the  focus  of  attention. 


B,    subject    (S)    and 


2.  Process.  The  process  by  which  the  notions 
of  'self  and  'object'  are  constructed  is  essentially 
a  motor  one.  As  soon  as  more  or  less  definite 
motor  reactions  and  movements  begin,  as  in 
seizing  and  grasping,  some  portions  of  the  field 


GIVEN  SITUATION  IN  ATTENTION      19 

of  consciousness  become  outlined,  cut  out  of  their 
setting,  and  woven  into  the  personal  history  of 
the  individual  concerned.  A  child  which  seizes 
a  pencil,  for  example,  plucks  it  out  of  its  setting, 
gives  it  outline,  uses  it  perhaps,  and  places  it  as 
a  separate  object  among  other  objects.  While 
the  pencil  may  have  had  a  more  or  less  distinct 
visual  outline,  its  control  by  the  child  would  give 
greater  vividness  and  strength  to  impressions  of 
its  separate  existence.  In  fact,  for  grown  people, 
manipulation  and  motor  control  is  a  test  of  the 
individual  existence  of  an  object.  If  one  is  not 
certain,  for  example,  whether  an  object  is  fas- 
tened to  some  other,  is  part  of  it,  or  on^  separate 
from  it,  one  will  take  it  in  hand,  lift  it,  and  try 
it  in  a  number  of  ways. 

The  changing  nature  of  the  objective  field, 
too,  tends  to  give  it  the  stamp  of  existence  apart 
from  the  self.  A  portion  of  the  field  comes  and 
goes,  suffers  reconstruction  or  even  destruction, 
and  seems  a  flux  opposed  to  a  more  or  less  stable 
background  of  individual  feeling  and  conscious- 
ness. It  is  the  same  mass  of  feeling,  for  instance, 
which  accompanies  the  act  of  throwing  a  toy  out 
of  the  window,  as  that  which  goes  with  the  activ- 
ity of  looking  out  of  the  window,  or  of  going 
down  stairs  to  look  for  the  toy.     Feelings  of 


20  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

motor  activity,  of  satisfaction,  pain,  etc.,  are  re-: 
f erred  to  the  self  in  a  more  or  less  conscious 
manner.  These  give  the  self  a  value  as  a  more 
or  less  unchanging,  existential  fact.  In  addition, 
visual  elements,  as  of  form  of  the  body,  remain 
much  the  same,  and  reinforce  the  feelings  of 
motor  activity,  satisfaction,  ease,  quiescence, 
pleasure,  and  the  like.^ 

An  aid  in  this  process  of  differentiation  is 
such  control  of  others  as  enters  into  the  child's^ 
field  of  experience.  Conflict  of  control  will 
bring  out  the  'other'  as  a  separate  factor  in  the 
total  field.  The  difference  in  the  conduct  of 
others  when  entering  in  the  same  field  of  objects 
controlled  by  the  child  will  also  tend  to  stamp 
the  'other'  as  an  existential  fact  apart  from  ob- 
jects within  the  child's  field  of  activity.  A  grown 
person,  for  example,  will  take  an  object  from 
the  child,  will  take  the  child  from  the  object, 

«See:  Stout,  G.  F.,  'The  Genesis  of  the  Cognition  of  Physical 
Reality,'  Mind,  15,  1890.  Baldwin,  James  Mark,  Mental  Develop- 
ment in  the  Child  and  the  Race,  112-120,  and  Social  and  Ethical 
Interpretations  in  Mental  Development,  Ch.  I.  Preyer,  W.,  The 
Development  of  the  Intellect,  Eng.  tr.  by  H.  W.  Brown,  Ch.  XIX. 
Compayre,  Gabriel,  Development  of  the  Child  in  Later  Infancy, 
Eng.  tr.  by  M.  E.  Wilson,  Ch.  VIII.  Wundt,  Wilhelm,  OrundzUge 
der  Physiologischen  Psychologies  3:Ch.  XVIII,  §1,  f.  James, 
William,  Principles  of  Psychology,  Ch.  X.  and  The  Meaning  of 
Truth,  Marshall,  H.  R.,  Consciousness,  Arnold,  F.,  'Conscious- 
ness and  its  Object,'  Psych.  Bev.,  12,  1905. 


GIVEN  SITUATION  IN  ATTENTION     21 

will  assist  the  child  in  the  control  of  the  object. 
Such  conflict  of  control,  even  with  adults,  em- 
phasises the  existence  of  another  as  a  separate 
fact  which  is  to  be  reckoned  with  in  the  manipula- 
tion of  objects. 

Within  the  objective  field  many  changes  may- 
take  place  because  of  the  manipulation  and  con- 
trol attempted  by  the  child.  Development  of  the 
situation  may  proceed  by  increase  in  the  number 
and  kinds  of  the  points  of  contact  which  are 
made.  When  a  child  sees  an  object,  he  usually 
tries  to  seize  it,  bite  it,  throw  it  about,  take  it 
apart,  test  it  in  every  possible  manner.  Each 
point  of  junction  is  a  new  experience  for  the 
child  and  gives  fuller  meaning  to  the  situation  in 
hand.  Development  of  a  situation  is  also  pos- 
sible through  reconstruction  or  partial  destruc- 
tion. To  a  beholder  the  activity  of  the  child  may 
not  mean  development,  may,  in  fact,  seem  a 
waste  of  time,  or  a  positive  nuisance.  But  to 
the  child  such  control  as  he  exercises,  whether  de- 
structive or  not,  results  in  a  widening  of  his  own 
experiences,  and  in  instructive  changes  in  the 
field  before  him. 

Successive  acts  of  control  result  in  increased 
difi*erentiation  and  development.  Residual  ef- 
fects accumulate  both  in  the  subject  and  in  the 


22  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

objective  field.  In  the  individual  such  cumula- 
tive results  are  represented  by  habits,  mental 
dispositions,  memories,  and  the  like.  The  child, 
in  popular  parlance,  'will  know  better  next  time.' 
In  the  objective  field  we  have,  in  the  more  ad- 
vanced stages,  material  progress,  tradition,  moral 
law  and  order,  custom,  etc.  The  latter  then  re- 
acts on  the  former  and  tends  to  preserve  control 
within  the  grooves  of  custom.  The  social  back- 
ground is  usually  able  to  enforce  its  conventions 
and  manners  on  the  individual,  who,  in  turn,  may 
be  able  to  effect  changes  in  such  conventions  and 
traditions.  Action  and  reaction  go  together,  here 
as  elsewhere.  On  the  basis  of  cumulative  residua, 
the  individual  is  able  'to  rise  on  his  dead  self 
to  higher  things.'  Whatever  he  has  accomplished 
can  be  used  as  a  foundation  for  further  control. 
The  child,  for  example,  who  has  mastered  writ- 
ing and  reading,  is  able  to  spend  his  energy  on 
other  things.  Below  is  a  schematic  outline  which 
illustrates  progress  and  individual  endeavour  on 
a  broad  platform  of  habit. 

Development  of  a  situation  in  the  manner  sug- 
gested above  demands  a  narrowing  of  the  field 
under  manipulation,  a  fixation  of  the  object,  a 
closer  and  more  refined  series  of  adjustments,  a 
more  delicate  interpretation,  a  finer  feel  or  body 


GIVEN  SITUATION  IN  ATTENTION     23 


_1  IMPULSE 

Fig.     III.       Individual     Development      (after 
Baldwin,    J.    M.,    Ment.    Dev.). 

attitude,  in  short,  attention.  The  subject  must 
select  his  object,  examine  aspects  of  it,  try  it 
in  various  ways,  and  control  it  in  a  more  or  less 
definite  manner.  Self  and  object  exist  together, 
each  is  influential  in  producing  changes,  each 
must  be  considered  in  relation  to  the  other.  The 
objective  side  of  the  situation  gives  us  the  field 
of  attention.  The  subjective  side  gives  us  those ^ 
motor  adjustments,  ideal  elements,  and  reinforc- 
ing factors  which  are  usually  present  in  the  more 
advanced  stages  of  attention.  Both  aspects,  the 
subjective  and  the  objective,  must  be  considered 
in  the  treatment  of  attention. 

§  IV.  EXPLANATION 

Certain   biological   considerations   necessitate 
such  differentiation  and  discrimination  as  are 


24  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

found  in  the  subject-object  relation,  and  in  at- 
tention. Some  restriction  of  the  objective  field 
is  necessary  for  the  continued  existence  of  the 
organism.  Discrimination  and  selection  are  nec- 
essary even  in  animal  life,  and  in  the  more  ele- 
mentary functions  of  eating  and  drinking.  The 
savage  who  misses  his  aim  may  have  to  go  hungry 
or  starve.  The  hunter  who  can  not  find  signs 
of  water  may  perish.  The  child  who  is  unable 
to  control  his  knife  will  cut  himself.  The  adult 
who  does  not  hear  the  horn  of  the  electric  car 
may  lose  his  life.  Focalisation  and  definite  reac- 
tion are  necessary  to  ensure  a  modicum  of  ease 
and  satisfaction.  Strange  and  uncommon  situa- 
tions which  may  result  in  pain  or  death  must 
be  focalised  before  further  reaction  of  definite 
nature  is  possible.  Moreover,  focalisation  with 
selection  may  be  needed  to  ensure  safe  control. 

Where  a  situation  is  more  or  less  known,  fur- 
ther knowledge  is  possible  only  by  analysis,  dis- 
crimination, selection,  and  restricted  control. 
Scientific  workers  are  continually  constructing 
mechanical  aids  by  means  of  which  given  situa- 
tions can  be  cut  up  into  smaller  parts,  restricted 
within  a  limited  field,  and  intensively  controlled. 
Specialisation  is  but  another  name  for  such  fo- 
calisation and  concentration. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  OBJECTIVE  ASPECT  OF  ATTENTION 

§  I.  DESCRIPTION 

1.  Clearness  and  Distinctness.  A  striking 
characteristic  of  the  field  of  attention  is  the 
change  in  the  clearness  and  distinctness  which  re- 
sults from  the  motor  and  ideal  processes  which 
are  aroused.  As  control  of  a  situation  becomes 
restricted,  as  the  field  narrows  and  becomes  cut 
out  of  its  setting,  it  is  said  to  become  distinct. 
The  situation  is  distinct  in  that  it  is  more  or  less 
sharply  defined,  in  that  it  stands  out  from  its 
surroundings.  The  outline  of  a  flying  bird  as 
seen  against  a  clear  sky,  the  blur  on  the  horizon 
which  is  recognised  as  a  ship,  these  are  distinct, 
though  they  can  not  be  said  to  be  clear.  When, 
in  addition,  the  parts  of  the  situation  stand  out 
within  the  whole,  when  the  relations  between  the 
parts  become  evident,  the  situation  is  said  to  be 
clear.  The  flying  bird  is  then  seen  to  have  cer- 
tain coloration,  the  ship  is  then  recognised  as  a 
steamship,  with  two  or  more  stacks,  and  so  on. 
Distinctness  refers  to  the  totality  as  set  off 
against  a  marginal  background.     Clearness  re- 

25 


26  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

fers  to  a  further  differentiation  of  the  parts 
within  the  whole. 

Clearness  and  distinctness  are  terms  which 
have  historical  connections.  Descartes  used  clear- 
ness and  distinctness  as  signs  by  which  to  judge 
of  the  truth  of  notions. 

I  call  that  clear  which  is  present  and  manifest  to  an 
attentive  mind;  .  .  .  and  distinct,  that  which  is  so  sep- 
arate and  distinguished  from  every  thing  else  that  it  con- 
tains within  itself  only  that  which  is  clear/ 

Clearness  and  distinctness  have  also  been  em- 
emphasized  in  connection  with  visual  metaphors. 
The  'Blickpunkf  view  of  attention  has  been 
prominently  brought  forward  by  Wundt  and 
Titchener,  but  it  was  used  long  before  them. 
Fortlage  likens  attention  to  the  'clear  glance  of 
observation'^  and  Lotze  compares  it  to  the  'ret- 
ina of  the  eye.'^  Hamilton  writes  in  a  similar 
strain. 

Consciousness  may  be  compared  to  a  telescope,  atten- 
tion to  the  pulling  out  or  in  of  the  tubes  in  accommodat- 
ing the  focus  to  the  object;  and  we  might,  with  equal 
justice,  distinguish  in  the  eye,  the  adjustment  of  the 
pupil  from  the  general  organ  of  vision,  as,  in  the  mind, 

^PrincVt  I,  §  XLV. 

^  Fortlage,  Karl,  System  der  Psychologie,  1855,  §  12. 

•  Lotze,  Rudolph  Hermann,  Medicinische  Psychologie,  1852,  §  37. 


THE  OBJECTIVE  ASPECT  27 

distinguish  attention  from  consciousness  as  separate 
faculties.* 

This  predominance  of  visual  terminology  is  not 
strange  when  we  consider,  as  Jevons  points  out, 
that  at  least  246  words  in  the  English  language 
have  been  derived  from  the  root  'spec.'^ 

A  third  characteristic  of  the  field  of  attention, 
emphasised  by  some,  denied  by  others,  is  inten- 
sity, or  rather,  increase  in  intensity.  Con- 
siderable discussion  of  the  hair-splitting  va- 
riety may  be  found  defending  one  or  the  other 
view.^  Any  contentions  one  way  or  the  other  in 
this  connection  disregard  the  basic  function  of 
such  changes  in  the  situation  as  take  place.  These 
changes  are  secondary  and  subordinate  to  the 
motor  control  and  manipulation  which  is  to  be 

*  Hamilton,  Sir  William,  Lectures  on  Meta'physics,  Lect.  XIII. 

•^See,  Wundt,  W.,  Orund.  d.  Phys.  Psych.,  3:333-339.  Jodl, 
Friedrich,  Lehrbuch  der  Psychologie,  2:74.  Tichener,  E,  B.,  Exp. 
Psych.,  l:Pt.  II,  89,  and  Lectures  on  the  Elementary  Psychology 
of  Feeling  and  Attention.  Eraser,  Alexander,  'Visualisation  as  a 
Chief  Source  of  the  Psychology  of  Hobbes,  Locke,  Berkeley,  and 
Hume,'  Am.  Jour,  of  Psych.,  4:230-247. 

*See:  Stump f,  Carl,  Tonpsychologie,  1:§4,  2: §22.  James,  W., 
Princ.  of  Psych.,  1:425.  Kuelpe,  Oswald,  Outlines  of  Psychology, 
Eng.  tr.  by  E.  B.  Titchener.  Lough,  James  E.,  'The  Relations  of 
Intensity  to  Duration  of  Stimulation  in  our  Sensations  of  Sight,' 
Psych.  Rev.,  3:484-492.  Miinsterberg,  Hugo,  and  Kozaki,  N., 
'The  Intensifying  Effect  of  Attention,'  Psych.  Bev.,  1:39-44. 
Pillsbury,  W.,  Attention,  Ch.  I.  Titchener,  E.  B.,  El  Psych,  of 
Feeling  and  Attention.     *> 


28  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

effected.  There  is  no  inherent  virtue  in  either 
increase  or  decrease  in  intensity.  Such  a  change, 
in  itself,  means  little.  It  is  the  purpose  which 
the  change  is  to  subserve  which  determines 
whether  or  not  there  is  to  be  an  increase  in  the 
intensity  of  incoming  impressions.  If  increase 
of  intensity  will  facilitate  more  perfect  control, 
then  the  individual  will  secure  such  increase  in 
intensity  and  illumination,  by  artificial  means,  if 
necessary.  Usually,  ideal  and  motor  reinforce- 
ments are  called  into  service  to  secure  increase 
in  the  intensity  of  an  impression.  If  one  listens 
closely  enough,  one  may  hear  a  sound  which  has 
no  real  existence.  If  ideal  elements  can  not  be 
used,  mechanical  instruments  are  called  into  play. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  a  more  modified  atmosphere 
is  necessary,  a  situation  may  be  plucked  out  of  a 
too  intense  and  blinding  illumination,  and  placed 
in  one  more  subdued.  An  artist  will  examine  a 
picture  with  half -closed  eyes.  One  may,  in  fact, 
close  one's  eyes  entirely  to  a  too  obtrusive  situa- 
tion. Intensity  may  or  may  not  be  found  ac- 
cording as  control  calls  for  it  or  not.  Increase 
in  intensity,  when  present,  is  possible  only  within 
narrow  limits.  One  can,  for  example,  follow  a 
diminuendo  with  increasing  attention.  The  re- 
sulting increase  in  intensity  is  only  a  relative  one. 


THE  OBJECTIVE  ASPECT  29 

and  does  not  of  necessity  force  the  notes  to  their 
maximal  strength.  The  diminuendo  will  remain 
a  diminuendo,  but  with  a  less  steep  descent. 

2.  Persistence.  In  attention,  the  situation  be- 
comes more  or  less  distinct  and  clear.  In  addition, 
it  may  persist  for  a  time  in  the  focus  of  the  given 
field.  Such  persistence  depends  in  great  measure 
upon  the  points  of  contact  which  can  be  made, 
and  upon  the  ideal  elements  which  can  be  excited. 
When  an  object  allows  of  esthetic  interpretation, 
motor  control,  etc.,  the  probabilities  are  that  it 
will  hold  attention  longer  than  will  a  more  barren 
object.  So  too,  a  field  which  revives  numerous 
ideas  and  images,  will  stay  in  the  focus  for  a 
considerable  time.  One  who  gazes  long  at  a 
time-table  does  not  do  so  solely  because  of  any 
inherent  interest  in  the  printed  matter  before 
him. 

The  three  characteristics,  clearness,  distinct-\ 
ness,  and  persistence,  inhere  in  the  objective  field, 
in  the  situation  under  control.  The  tendency  to 
treat  consciousness  as  a  special  kind  of  activity 
has  led  some  to  speak  of  the  clearness  and  dis- 
tinctness of  the  mental  state,  of  consciousness 
in  general.  Without  a  content,  however,  a  mental 
state  has  no  meaning.    In  attention  to  an  object. 


30  ATTENTION  AND  INTEKEST 

the  clearness  is  present  in  the  given  field.  The 
object  becomes  more  clear  and  distinct.  It  is 
not  a  more  highly  illuminated  consciousness 
which  is  poured  over  a  situation  to  brighten  it 
up,  but  a  control  which  makes  more  distinct  and 
clear  selected  portions  of  the  given  field. 

3.  Fluctuation.  When  minimal  visual  im- 
pressions are  fixated  steadily  for  a  time  the 
impressions  do  not  continue  at  a  uniform  inten- 
sity but  undulate,  as  it  were,  in  a  kind  of  rhythm. 
One  who  gazes  steadily  at  a  grey  ring  on  a 
white  background,  for  example,  will  find  that 
the  ring  becomes  less  distinct,  then  more  dis- 
tinct, then  less  distinct,  and  so  on.  The  one 
ring  will  yield  a  fluctuating  series  of  impression. 
Such  moments  of  distinctness  or  indistinctness, 
i.e,j  from  distinctness  to  indistinctness,  or  from 
indistinctness  to  distinctness,  vary  from  5  to  25 
seconds.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  such  fluctuation 
is  evident  with  only  very  weak  impressions. 

Experimental  investigation  has  shown  a  num- 
ber of  concomitant  phenomena. 

(1)  Fluctuation  is  closely  related  to  respira- 
tory and  vasomotor  changes. 

(2)  Slight  sensory  stimulation  increases  the 
length  of  the  periods  in  which  the  distinct  waves 


THE  OBJECTIVE  ASPECT  31 

persist.  More  intense  stimulation  decreases 
them,  Le.^  when  the  visual  impression  is  very 
weak  the  distinct  period  is  longer  than  when  the 
impression  is  stronger. 

(3)  Fatigue  decreases  the  length  of  the  pe- 
riods in  which  the  distinct  waves  persist. 

(4)  The  fluctuations  correspond  with  the  di- 
urnal periodicity  of  general  vitality.  The 
periods  of  greatest  distinctness  are  usually  longer 
in  the  morning  than  at  evening. 

(5)  Pathological  conditions  affect  the  fluctu- 
ations of  attention.  Thus  10  g.  of  alcohol 
decrease  the  length  of  the  periods  of  fluctuation 
and  induce  a  general  fatigue,  while  3  g.  of  brom. 
natr.  increase  the  length  of  the  periods.  So,  too, 
pathological  conditions  of  depression  or  of  ex- 
citation respectively  decrease  or  increase  effi- 
ciency in  this  connection.'^ 

^  Among  others,  see  Eckener,  Hugo,  'Untersuchungen  Uber  die 
Schwankungen  der  Auffassung  minimaler  Sinnesreize,'  Phil.  Stud,, 
8:343-387.  Galloway,  E.  C,  'The  Effect  of  Stimuli  upon  the 
Length  of  Traube-Hering  Waves,'  Am.  Jour,  of  Psych.,  15:499-512. 
Hammer,  Bertil,  'Zur  experimentellen  Kritik  der  Theorie  der 
Aufmerksamkeitsschwankungen,'  Zeit.  f.  Psych.,  37:363-376. 
Heinrich,  W.,  und  Chwistek,  L.,  *Ueber  das  periodische  Ver- 
schwinden  kleiner  Punkte,'  Zeit.  f.  Psych.,  41:59-73.  Hylan,  J.  P., 
'Fluctuations  of  Attention,*  Psych.  Rev.,  3:56-63.  Lehmann, 
Alfred,  'Ueber  die  Beziehung  zwischen  Athmung  und  Aufmerk- 
samkeit,'  Phil.  Stud.,  9:66-95.  Marbe,  Karl,  'Die  Schwankungen 
der  Gesichtsempfindungen,'  Phil.  Stud.,  8:615-637.  Pace,  Edward, 
*Zur   Frage  der  Schwankungen  der   Aufmerksamkeit  nach  Ver- 


32 


ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 


The  following  tables  give  in  seconds  the  peri- 
ods of  distinct  vision  and  indistinct  vision,  under 
normal  conditions,  and  with  accompanying  stim- 
ulation from  different  sources.  The  attention 
in  each  case  was  fixated  on  a  revolving  disc  hav- 
ing on  it  a  circle  of  grey  (Masson  disc) .® 

SUBJECTS 


Normal 

Induction 
Current 

Smoking 

V 

NV 

T 

V    1  NV 

T 

V 

NV 

T 

Av.  of  7  tests 

6.0 

4.9 

10.9 

4.5      4.5 

9.0 

7.1 

4.2 

11.3 

Ether 

Balsam 

Single  tests 

6.7  1  6.7     13.4 

5.0     5.4 

10.4 

3.3      4.1  |7.44 

F.=visible,  2V.F.=not  visible,  T.=total. 

Induction  current.     A  slight  current  was  passed  through  the 
left  hand  while  the  subject  was  looking  at  the  Masson  disc. 
Smoking.    Subject  smoked  during  the  process  of  fixation. 
Ether,  balsam.     Odors  were  smelled  during  the  experiment. 

Table  I 

suchen  mit  der  Masson'sschem  Scheibe,'  Phil.  Stud.,  8:388-402. 
Pillsbury,  W.  B.,  *  Attention  Waves  as  a  Means  of  Measuring 
Fatigue,'  Am.  Jour,  of  Psych.,  14:277-288.  Seashore,  C.  E.,  'Die 
Aufmerksamkeitsschwankungen,'  Zeit.  f.  Psych.,  39:448-450. 
Slaughter,  J.  W.,  'The  Fluctuations  of  the  Attention  in  some  of 
their  Psychological  Relations,'  Am.  Jour,  of  Psych.,  12:313-334. 
Taylor,  R.  W.,  'The  Effect  of  Certain  Stimuli  upon  the  Attention 
Wave,'  Am.  Jour,  of  Psych.,  12:335-345.  Wiersma,  E.,  'Unter- 
suchungen  iiber  die  sogenannten  Aufmerksamkeitsschwankungen,' 
Zeit.  f.  Psych.,  26:168-200,  28:179-198,  31:110-126.  For  further 
references  see  Pillsbury,  W.  B.,  Attention,  and  Titchener,  E.  B., 
The  Psych,  of  Feeling  and  Attention. 
•From,  Taylor,  R.  W.,  Ibid.,  337,  339. 


THE  OBJECTIVE  ASPECT 
SUBJECT  E 


33 


Normal 

Induction 
Current 

After 
Stimulation 

V 

NV 

T 

V 

NV 

T 

V 

NV 

T 

Av.  of  4  tests 

15.3 

10.5 

25.8 

17.1 

12.8 

30.0 

1 

Subject  B 

Av.  of  3  tests 

5.6      2.5      8.1 

6.6      2.5      9.1 

5.4      2.8      8.2 

k 


Table  II 

Fluctuation  in  the  case  of  minimal  visual  im- 
pressions seems  to  be  well  established.  In  the 
case  of  minimal  auditory  and  tactile  impressions, 
however,  it  is  highly  probable  that  any  fluctua- 
tion similar  to  visual  fluctuation  does  not  take 
place.  It  is  extremely  difficult  to  establish  any 
definite  waves  of  distinctness  and  indistinctness 
in  such  cases.  One  should  go  through  a  series  of 
tests  before  accepting  a  few  results  of  somewhat 
doubtful  experimentation.  If  sound  is  used,  the 
stimulation  must  be  minimal  and  persistent  as 
far  as  the  mechanical  arrangements  are  con- 
cerned. Simple  tones  seem  to  remain  constant, 
and  very  light  weights  (cork)  on  the  hand  give 
no  evidence  of  fluctuation.  This  can  be  tried  by 
any  one.^ 


"See  Titchener, 
of  Psych.,  10:95. 
3 


E.  B.,  Feel,  and  Attent.,  267,  and  Am.  Jour. 


34  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

4.  Unity.  Before  one  discusses  the  unity  of 
attention  one  should  state  exactly  what  one  re- 
fers to  by  such  unity  and  also  what  conditions 
hold  when  such  unity  is  tested.  For  example,  it 
is  true  that  one  can  recognise  a  word  as  easily  as 
one  can  a  letter.  The  unity  is  then  the  word  as 
a  whole  and  not  the  separate  letters  which  com- 
pose the  word.  So,  too,  one  can  glance  at  a  page 
and  give  the  number  of  words  on  the  page  as  two 
or  three  hundred.  What  is  then  in  the  focus  of 
attention  is  the  single  page  which  means  or  sig- 
nifies the  number  of  words.  It  would  hardly 
hold,  however,  that  three  hundred  words,  as  sepa- 
rate words,  were  seen  in  the  one  act  of  apprehen- 
sion. It  is  usually  held  that  in  the  visual  field 
attention  to  four  or  five  distinct  and  separate 
objects  is  possible.^ ^  If  these  objects  are  really 
seen  as  separate  objects,  then  the  statement  is 
true,  that  attention  is  possible  to  five  objects.  But 
if  through  long  association  and  habitual  motor 
adjustments,  certain  groupings  have  come  to 
mean  *five,'  if  contact  and  manipulation  of  ob- 
jects have  shown  such  objects  to  be  five,  and  to 
stand  for  'five,'  then  the  single  act  of  attention 
to  groupings  of  four  or  five  would  result  in  the 
recall  of  *five'  as  a  number  whole  associated  with 

*"See,  for  example,  Pillsbury,  W.  B.,  Attention,  Ch.  VI. 


THE  OBJECTIVE  ASPECT  35 

the  group.  In  such  a  case,  even  though  'five' 
means  a  series,  a  number  of  successive  acts  of 
counting,  a  succession  of  distinct  and  separate 
events,  the  act  of  attention  at  the  given  moment 
did  not  necessarily  include  such  counts  or  series. 
We  look,  for  example,  at  a  series  of  lines  and 
cognise  five  at  a  given  moment.  Now  do  we 
actually  see  five  distinct  and  separate  objects  at 
a  glance,  or  do  we  recognise  a  group  which  ex- 
perience has  taught  us  is  'five,'  and  then  interpret 
the  'five'  another  way,  i,e.^  as  a  series? 

Two  varying  conditions  lead  one  to  beUeve 
that  the  latter  is  the  case.  When  the  length  of 
time  in  which  a  group  is  exposed  to  an  observer 
is  shortened,  fewer  objects  are  seen  in  a  single 
act  of  attention.  So,  too,  the  results  differ  when 
the  ages  of  the  observers  diff^er.  Griffing  tested 
the  pupils  of  the  different  school  years  with  a 
series  of  letters.  The  observers  looked  at  the 
fixation  point,  and  at  the  signal,  'Ready,'  the 
letters  were  shown  for  a  given  time.  In  the  fol- 
lowing tables  are  given  the  results  of  two  series 
of  tests,  the  first  with  a  time  limit  of  1  second, 
the  second  with  a  time  limit  of  .1  second.^^  A 
study  of  the  figures  will  show  the  variation  due 
to  decrease  in  the  time  of  exposure. 

"GriflSng,  Harold,  *On  the  Development  of  Visual  Perception 
and  Attention,'  Am.  Jour,  of  Psych.,  7:227-236. 


36 


ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 


Average    Total    Number    Seen  With   1    Second    Exposure    For 
Different  Classes 


N 

C 

S 

MV 

R 

MV 

Max. 

MiN. 

R 

S 

19 

I 

20 

7 

17 

5 

36 

7 

.85 

17 

II 

30 

5 

26 

4 

38 

20 

.87 

10 

III 

37 

5 

33 

5 

49 

20 

.89 

20 

IV 

35 

5 

28 

6 

48 

14 

.77 

15 

V 

40 

7 

36 

6 

43 

25 

.90 

22 

VI 

44 

6 

38 

5 

54 

*    28 

.82 

13 

VII 

51 

8 

44 

8 

58 

29 

.86 

11 

VIII 

50 

8 

47 

7 

59 

31 

.94 

10 

High 

59 

2 

55 

6 

60 

40 

.93 

In  this  and  the  following  table, 

N.=rnumber  of  pupils  in  the  class. 

C.=class  by  year. 

S.=average  of  the  total  number  of  letters  as  seen  in  ten  trials, 
six  letters  being  given  in  each  trial.  The  first,  for  example,  20,  is 
the  number  seen  in  ten  trials.  This  will  give,  for  the  first  year, 
2  seen  in  a  single  act  of  attention. 

M.V.=:mean  variation  of  S. 

R.z^average  of  the  total  number  seen  correctly  during  the  ten 
trials. 

M.V.=mean  variation  of  R. 

MAx.=maximum  of  the  total  number  seen  by  any  individual 
during  the  ten  trials. 

MiN.=minimum  seen  correctly  by  any  individual 

Table  III 


Average  Total  Number  Seeit  With  .1 

Secon^d  Exposure 

N 

C 

S 

MV 

R 

MV 

Max. 

MiN. 

f 

22 

I 

8 

6 

3 

3 

17 

0 

.4 

16 

II-III 

13 

8 

6 

4 

19 

0 

.4 

12 

IV 

16 

6 

7 

3 

13 

1 

.4 

17 

V 

18 

5 

14 

4 

22 

3 

.8 

17 

VI 

22 

10 

12 

5 

25 

0 

.5 

23 

VII 

19 

7 

14 

5 

23 

0 

.7 

23 

VIII 

25 

7 

21 

6 

37 

8 

.8 

84 

High 
Coll. 

30 

5 

23 

6 

47 

4 

.8 

75 

32 

6 

29 

6 

59 

11 

.9 

Table  IV 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

'E  objective  aspect  37 

It  is  seen  that  when  the  time  of  exposure  was 
reduced  from  one  second  to  one  tenth  of  a  second, 
the  number  of  letters  seen  in  a  single  act  of  at- 
tention dropped  considerably,  in  most  cases  to 
less  than  half  as  many.  It  is  also  seen  that  the 
younger  pupils  were  able  to  grasp  a  much  smaller 
number  of  letters  in  a  single  act  of  apprehension 
than  were  the  older  ones.  One  can  not  say, 
therefore,  that  attention  to  five  objects  is  pos- 
sible, if  one  means  five  separate  and  distinct 
objects.  All  the  pupils  were  shown  the  same 
letters,  but  such  letters  did  not  signify  the  same 
number  wholes  to  the  different  pupils.  As  a 
simple,  mechanical  act,  the  seeing  and  the  atten- 
tion were  the  same  in  each  case.  The  difference 
in  the  results  was  due  to  the  difference  in  the 
development  and  training  of  the  pupils,  to  the 
difference  in  the  associations,  and  in  the  experi- 
ence with  numbered  or  grouped  objects. 

A  series  of  experiments  by  Hylan  show  prac- 
tically the  same  thing,  namely,  that  the  elements 
of  time  and  experience  are  conditioning  factors 

I  in  the  apprehension  of  groups  of  objects.  In 
these  tests  six  letters  on  each  of  twenty  cards  were 
exposed  in  succession,  one  letter  at  a  time.  The 
series  of  six  letters  was  exposed  for  20  <r,  or  3.6  o-. 
— 


38 


ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 


passed  from  right  to  left,  and  in  the  second  from 
left  to  right.  A  signal  was  given  before  the 
exposure  of  the  series.  Each  of  the  twenty  cards 
was  shown  five  times,  this  making  one  hundred 
exposures  for  each  subject.  The  subjects  gave 
both  the  letters  seen,  and  their  order.  The  results 
in  the  following  table  give  the  totals  for  the 
hundred  tests.^^ 


Subject 

A 

H 

R 

s 

V 

Av. 

No.  seen  correctly 
No.  seen  wrong 
No.  misplaced 

212 
40 
17 

222 

30 
16 

158 

58 
5 

160 
50 

18 

224 
58 
23 

195 

47 
16 

(Reversed) 

No.  seen  correctly 
No.  seen  wrong 
No.  misplaced 

208 

32 

6 

225 
22 
13 

151 
53 
10 

151 
53 
10 

229 

52 

9 

196 

45 

9 

Table  V 

The  first  effect  of  the  letters  was  that  of  a  single  com- 
plex impression,  some  characters  appearing  distinctly 
outlined,  some  confused,  and  some  entirely  unseen.  This 
conscious  impression  followed  the  exposure  in  much  the 
same  way  that  a  positive  after  image  follows  a  stimula- 
tion of  light.  It  was  sometimes  possible  to  hold  this 
impression  with  all  its  details  an  appreciable  length  of 
time  without  recognising  a  single  letter,  until  each  char- 
acter was  recognised  one  at  a  time.     But  It  was  more 

"Hylan,  J.  P.,  'The  Distribution  of  Attention,'  Psych,  Bev,, 
10:373-403,  and  498-533. 


THE  OBJECTIVE  ASPECT 


39 


frequent  that  one  or  sometimes  two  letters  were  recog- 
nised without  being  preceded  by  an  appreciable  interval, 
and  these  followed  by  one  or  two  more,  one  at  a  time  and 
in  distinct  succession.^^ 

Hylan  conducted  a  further  series  of  experi- 
ments to  test  the  distribution  of  attention  and  to 
find  whether  or  not  the  groups  are  seen  as  groups 
of  distinct  objects,  or  as  groups  which  are  later 
analysed  into  their  separate  parts.  Lines,  nu- 
merals, letters,  and  words  were  shown  on  cards. 
Twelve  cards  were  used  five  times  each  in  each 
series.  The  smallest  number  of  lines  on  a  card 
was  4  (2  mm.  apart),  of  numerals  and  letters, 
3,  and  of  words,  2.  The  observer  was  asked  to 
give  the  arrangement  of  the  single  elements  of 
an  impression.  The  results  in  the  following  ta- 
ble are  the  totals  of  sixty  tests.  The  per  cent  is 
that  of  the  number  of  wrong  cases  seen.  The 
time  exposure  was  one  tenth  of  a  second. 


Objects 
Exposed 

Lines 

Figures 

Letters 

Words 

R 

W 

% 

R 

w 

% 

R 

w 

% 

R 

W 

% 

2 

48 

32 

67 

3 

Q6 

5 

8 

61 

9 

14 

14 

46 

329 

4 

50 

10 

10 

52 

18 

35 

50 

30 

60 

19 

21 

111 

5 

41 

34 

34 

68 

42 

62 

36 

64 

1T8 

1 

19 

1900 

6 

41 

34 

34 

31 

59 

190 

14 

46 

329 

Table  VI 


"J6tU,  398. 


40  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

It  is  seen  that  attention  is  not  evenly  distributed 
over  the  given  field,  that  it  does  not  grasp  a 
totality  as  a  group  of  distinct  objects,  that,  in 
fact,  the  number,  five,  six,  etc.,  is  due,  either  to 
an  association  of  the  group  with  the  number,  or 
an  interpretation  of  the  group,  an  analysis  which 
has  no  place  in  the  original  act  of  attention. 
One  can  not,  therefore,  say  that  visual  attention 
to  five  or  six  objects  is  possible.  It  is  highly 
probable  that  attention  to  more  than  one  or  two 
distinct  and  separate  objects  is  impossible.  In 
fact,  in  attention  to  a  number  of  series  of  three 
letters  each,  Cron  and  Kraepelin  found  that  the 
middle  letter  was  read  correctly  the  most,  the  last 
letter  a  less,  and  the  first  letter  the  least  number 
of  times.^^  This  would  hardly  be  if  there  were 
such  a  thing  as  a  single  pulse  of  attention  which 
grasped  in  detail  several  distinct  objects. 

Tests  on  attention  to  a  succession  of  sounds 
show  that  as  many  as  8  can  be  apprehended  as 
a  group,  and  that  when  the  sounds  are  so 
grouped,  as  many  as  from  2  to  5  groups  can  be 

"Cron,  Ludwig,  and  Kraepelin,  Emil,  *Ueber  die  Messung  der 
Auffassungsfahigkeit,'  Psych.  Arbeiten,  2:219.  See  also,  Finzi, 
Jacopo,  'Zur  Untersuchung  der  Auffassungsfahigkeit  und  Merk- 
fahigkeit,*  Psych.  Arh.  3:289-384.  Kleinknecht,  H.,  *The  Inter- 
ference of  Optical  Stimuli,'  Harvard  Psychological  Studies, 
2:299-308. 


THE  OBJECTIVE  ASPECT  41 

seized  and  retained.  The  most  favorable  time  of 
succession  in  such  cases  seems  to  vary  between 
0.3  and  0.18  seconds.^  ^  As  in  visual  impressions, 
so  in  auditory,  it  is  highly  probable  that  the 
sounds  are  not  cognised  as  distinct  and  separate 
impressions,  but  rather  as  a  group  or  rhythm 
which  is  connected  with  the  number  'eight,'  or 
which,  as  a  rhythmic  impression,  comes  to  mean 
'eight.'  There  still  remains  to  be  made  a  series 
of  experiments  in  which  a  number  of  simulta- 
neous auditory  impressions  are  given  with  vary- 
ing periods  of  persistence,  as  in  the  case  of  visual 
impressions. 

In  the  field  of  touch  Krohn  gave  simultaneous 
touch  impressions  to  different  parts  of  the  body. 
He  found  that  when  the  impressions  were  scat- 
tered, as  many  as  six  or  seven  could  be  appre- 
hended as  distinct  and  separate.^ ^  But  as  Hylan 
remarks,  "It  should  be  said,  however,  that  after- 
images of  touch  were  very  persistent,  and  were 
used  to  a  considerable  extent  in  locating  the  sen- 
sations."^^    What  has  been  said  in  connection 

"Dietze,  Georg,  'Untersuchung  iiber  den  Umfang  aes  3e- 
wusstseins  bei  regelmassig  auf  einander  folgenden  Schallein- 
drucken,'  Phil  Stud.,  2:362-393,  384. 

"Krohn,  W.  O.,  *An  Experimental  Study  of  Simultaneous 
Stimulations  of  the  Sense  of  Touch,'  Journ.  of  Nerv.  and  Ment, 
Diseases,  1893. 

"Hylan,  Ibid.,  378, 


42  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

with  visual  impressions  may  therefore  be  consid- 
ered to  hold  in  the  case  of  touch  sensations.  In 
visual,  auditory,  and  tactile  attention,  we  may 
safely  say  that  the  number  of  objects  to  which 
one  can  attend  is  not  more  than  one  or  two. 
Larger  numbers  must  be  considered  as  due  to 
group  associations,  or  to  later  analyses  which 
interpret  the  group  impression  and  read  into  it 
the  different  objects. 

The  different  experiments  have  been  made  in 
visual,  auditory,  and  tactile  fields.  Attention  in 
the  visual  field  is  something  different  from  at- 
tention in  the  auditory  field,  and  the  same  is  true 
of  attention  in  the  tactile  sphere.  We  can  not 
be  said  to  possess  any  distinct  and  separate  power 
of  attention.  Each  field  is  distinct  and  separate. 
Just  how  many  fields  can  be  attended  to  at  once, 
depends  in  part  upon  the  connection  of  such 
fields  with  some  common  situation,  in  part  upon 
the  unity  of  motor  control,  and  in  part  upon  the 
experience  of  the  subject.  There  is  still  to  be 
performed  a  series  of  experiments  which  will 
determine  just  to  what  extent  these  conditions 
affect  the  unity  of  attention.  Tests  on  distrac- 
tion shed  considerable  light  on  the  subject.  As 
these  will  be  considered  under  the  topic  of  facili- 
tation and  arrest,  they  need  not  be  discussed 


THE  OBJECTIVE  ASPECT  43 

here.  From  the  data  thus  far  presented,  however, 
it  seems  safe  to  infer  that  what  we  have  is  not  a 
single  pulse  of  consciousness,  not  a  uniform  field 
of  attention,  but  rather  a  number  of  concomitant 
pulses  of  consciousness,  a  number  of  synchro- 
nous situations.  In  most  cases  the  visual  and 
the  motor  coalesce,  but  this  need  not  always 
be  so.  When  visual,  motor,  or  other  fields  coin- 
cide in  a  single  situation,  unity  is  usually  pos- 
sible in  the  field  of  attention.  When  such  fields, 
however,  inhere  in  different  objects,  when  stimu- 
lation comes  through  different  channels  and  from 
different  objects,  partial  attention  to  each  may 
be  possible,  depending  upon  the  complexity  of 
the  situation  and  the  intensity  of  the  attempted 
control.  In  short,  we  have  a  number  of  at- 
tentions, and  not  a  single  power  of  attention. 
This,  however,  is  anticipating  later  discussion. 

5.  Facilitation  and  Arrest.  Under  the 
name  of  'distraction  of  attention'  a  number  of 
experiments  have  been  made  with  a  view  of  de- 
termining the  effects  of  extraneous  stimulation 
on  attention  to  some  given  fields.  Some  of  these 
tests  showed  that  at  times  the  results  were  better 
when  the  so-called  distraction  was  attempted. 
For  example,  when  music  was  played  on  a  piano 
while  the  observer  lifted  weights  and  discrimi- 


44  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

nated  them,  the  results  were  better  than  when  there 
was  no  music/ ^  Such  tests,  however,  are  based  on 
the  assumption  that  error  alone  is  the  means  of 
detecting  distraction  of  attention.  These  tests, 
too,  assume  that  extraneous  stimulation  is  one  of 
the  few  means  of  securing  distraction.  A  great 
deal  of  experimentation  in  various  fields,  however, 
has  shown  that  attention  may  be  arrested  or  facil- 
itated in  a  number  of  ways,  and  that  such  facili- 
tation or  arrest  is  made  evident  by  means  other 
than  error  in  the  results.  One  aspect  which  must 
be  considered  in  detecting  facilitation  or  arrest 
is  time.  If,  under  the  new  conditions,  the  results 
are  secured  in  less  time,  attention  may  be  said  to 
be  facilitated.  If  more  time  is  required,  attention 
may  be  said  to  be  arrested.  If  the  time  remains 
constant,  then  facilitation  is  shown  if  there  are 
less  errors  in  the  results,  and  arrest  is  shown  if 
there  are  more  errors  in  the  results.  A  second  as- 
pect of  importance  is  the  number  of  objects 
which  can  be  attended  to  as  objects  within  a  given 
time,  and  under  the  new  conditions.  If  more  ob- 
jects can  be  cognised  under  the  new  conditions, 
then  attention  is  facilitated,  if  less,  attention  is 

'*  Talbot,  E.  B.,  *A  Study  of  Certain  Methods  of  Distracting 
the  Attention,'  Am.  Jour,  of  Psych.,  9:332-345,  and  336,  344. 
See  also  Moyer,  F.  E.,  Ibid.,  8:405-413,  and  Birch,  L.  G.,  Ibid., 
9:44-55. 


THE  OBJECTIVE  ASPECT 


45 


arrested.  When  the  time  remains  constant,  then 
increase  in  the  complexity  of  the  given  field  will 
result  in  more  errors  if  attention  is  arrested,  and 
less,  if  attention  is  facilitated.  The  third  means 
of  showing  facilitation  or  arrest  is  the  number  of 
errors  which  results.  If  the  time  remains  con- 
stant, and  the  given  field  remains  constant,  then 
arrest  is  shown  if  the  new  conditions  produce 
more  errors,  and  facilitation  is  shown  if  they 
give  rise  to  less  errors.  The  conditions  under 
which  facilitation  or  arrest  may  be  produced  will 
be  considered  in  the  following  sections.  It  is 
seen  that  extraneous  stimulation  is  only  one  of 
a  number. 

{a)  Simplicity  versus  compleccity ,  Of  the  two 
given  fields,  the  one  which  is  more  complex  will 
hold  attention  a  longer  time.  This  is  shown  by 
the  following  test,  in  which,  for  each  series  of 
100  fluctuations  in  attention  to  the  simple  figure. 


Fig.  IV. 


46 


ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 


there  were  less  for  the  complex  figure.    The  fol- 
lowing table  gives  the  exact  ratios.^ ^ 


Observer 

A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

Figure  I 
Figure  II 

100 
50 

100 
70 

100 
35 

100 
35 

100 
20 

Table  VII 

In  Hylan's  tables,  the  same  is  shown  by  the  test 
of  error.  When  the  time  remained  constant,  and 
the  observer  was  asked  to  give  the  arrangement 
of  each  of  the  parts  of  the  given  field,  the  wrong 
cases  averaged  34  per  cent  when  the  field  con- 
sisted of  five  lines,  62  per  cent  when  it  contained 
^ve  numerals,  178  per  cent  for  five  letters,  and 
1900  per  cent  for  five  words.  When  the  number 
of  objects  was  four  instead  of  five,  the  per  cents 
were,  for  lines,  10  per  cent,  for  numerals  35 
per  cent,  for  letters  60  per  cent,  and  for  words 
111  per  cent.  The  time  exposure  in  these  tests 
was  one  tenth  of  a  second.^^  Cattell  found  that 
it  took  much  longer  to  recognise  and  name  a 
color  or  a  picture,  than  it  did  a  letter  or  a  word. 
The  following  table  is  of  interest  both  for  psy- 

^°  Gordon,  Kate,  'Attention  as  Determined  by  the  Complexity 
of  the  Presented  Content,'  Psych.  Rev.,  10:278-283. 
^See  above,  page  39,  table  VI. 


THE  OBJECTIVE  ASPECT' 


47 


chological  and  pedagogical  reasons.     The  time 
is  given  in  thousandths  of  a  second.^  ^ 


Le'iter 

Word 

Word 

Color 

Picture 

A 

476 

Bond 

405 

Baum 

423 

Blue 

515 

Anchor 

535 

B 

413 

Cause 

428 

Berg 

417 

Green 

532 

Eye 

503 

C 

424 

Chair 

411 

Bild 

424 

Red 

559 

Tree 

517 

D 

411 

Child 

411 

Brief 

440 

Black 

505 

Hatchet 

513 

E 

424 

Death 

405 

Buch 

443 

Yellow 

575 

Image 

574 

F 

420 

Earth 

406 

Ding 

435 

Rose 

578 

Leaf 

567 

G 

426 

Fact 

385 

Fluss 

424 

Violet 

611 

Flower 

586 

H 

422 

Faith 

379 

Form 

409 

Grey 

697 

Fish 

48  r 

I 

451 

Force 

373 

Gold 

450 

Brown 

603 

Bottle 

561 

J 

415 

Head 

362 

Haus 

403 

Orange 

730 

Glass 

596 

K 

409 

House 

388 

Jahr 

454 

Hand 

490 

L 

423 

King 

408 

Kind 

450 

Hat 

446 

M 

422 

Life 

424 

Kunst 

461 

Can 

600 

N 

422 

Light 

414 

Land 

441 

Cross 

591 

0 

409 

Love 

404 

Licht 

441 

Light 

552 

P 

393 

Mind 

418 

Mann 

439 

Moon 

587 

Q 

418 

Name 

410 

Nacht 

447 

Scissors 

558 

R 

446 

Plan 

396 

Recht 

445 

Boat 

486 

S 

410 

Ship 

390 

Stadt 

449 

Umbrella 

556 

T 

409 

Slave 

402 

Stern 

432 

Shoe 

493 

U 

441 

Song 

389 

Theil 

424 

Key 

560 

V 

423 

Style 

442 

Tisch 

449 

Star 

498 

w 

432 

Time 

408 

Traum 

454 

Chair 

534 

X 

412 

Truth 

424 

Volk 

428 

Table 

547 

Y 

463 

World 

408 

Welt 

445 

Watch 

562 

Z 

421 

424 
17 

Year 

412 

Zahl 

469 

Bird 

566 

Ave. 

404 

438 

591 

541 

M.V. 

14 

14 

38 

25 

Table  VIII 

In  the  ease  of  the  colors  an  added  factor  in  the 
arrest  of  attention  was  the  difficulty  in  finding 

^  Cattell,  James  McKeen,  'Ueber  die  Zeit  der  Erkennung  und 
Benennung  von  Schriftzeichen,  Bildern,  und  Farben,'  Phil.  Stud., 
2:635-650,  and  'Psychometrische  Untersuchungen,'  Ibid.,  3:304- 
335,  and  452-492.  The  latter  is  the  most  important  and  contains 
the  table  given. 


48 


ATTENTION  AND  INTEKEST 


the  right  name  for  the  color.  It  is  to  be  noted 
that  with  the  words,  the  totality  as  a  whole  was 
named.  There  was  no  attempt  to  discriminate 
or  arrange  the  letters  of  the  word. 

(b)  Pleasure-pain.  The  general  effects  of 
pleasurable  or  painful  situations  are  well  known. 
A  field  which  is  pleasing  to  the  individual  tends 
to  hold  the  attention,  one  which  is  painful,  to 
repel  the  attention.  In  smelling  odors,  some 
pleasant,  some  unpleasant,  19  students  reacted 
either  by  relaxing  the  hands  and  letting  the 
head  drop  back  (extension),  or  by  contracting 
the  hands  and  letting  the  head  drop  forward. 
The  following  table  gives  the  number  of  cases: 


Reactions 

Unpleasant 

Pleasant 

Indifferent 

Cases 

Per  Cent. 

Cases 

Per  Cent. 

Cases 

Per  Cent, 

Flexion 
Extension 

240 
120 

66.6 
33.3 

118 

248 

32.2 

67.8 

15 
16 

49 
31 

Ratio 

2      :      1 

1      :     2+ 

1       :      1 

Table  IX 


The  experimenters  make  this  additional  note: 

Other  tendencies  are  present,  however,  such  for  ex- 
ample as  the  tendency  to  move  towards  an  object  which 
attracts  attention;  the  tendency  to  move  away  from  a 


THE  OBJECTIVE  ASPECT  49 

disagreeable   object;   the   tendency   to   make   particular 
movements  of  adaptation  to  stimuli ;  etc.^^ 

Lloyd  Morgan's  experiments  with  animals 
show  the  same  thing. 

To  some  other  chicks  I  threw  cinnabar  larvae,  dis- 
tasteful caterpillars  conspicuous  by  alternate  rings  of 
black  and  golden-yellow.  They  were  seized  at  once,  but 
dropped  uninjured;  the  chicks  wiped  their  bills — a  sign 
of  distaste — and  seldom  touched  the  caterpillars  a  second 
time.  The  cinnabar  larvae  were  then  removed,  and 
thrown  in  again  towards  the  close  of  the  day.  Some  of 
the  chicks  tried  them  once,  but  they  were  soon  left.  The 
next  day  the  birds  were  given  brown  loopers  and  green 
cabbage-moth  caterpillars.  These  were  approached  with 
some  suspicion,  but  presently  one  chick  ran  off  with  a 
looper,  and  was  followed  by  others,  one  of  which  stole 
and  ate  it.  In  a  few  minutes  all  the  caterpillars  were 
cleared  off.'" 

Attention  may  be  attracted  by  a  situation 
which  excites  f  eehng,  but  the  persistence  of  such 
attention  is  determined  in  part  by  the  pleasure- 
pain  elements  which  enter.  One  can,  of  course, 
attend  to  a  situation  in  spite  of  the  pain  which 
exists,  but,  other  things  remaining  the  same,  at- 

^  Dearborn,  G.  V.,  and  Spindler,  F.  N.,  'Involuntary  Motor 
Reaction  to  Pleasant  and  Unpleasant  Stimuli,'  Psych.  Bev., 
4:461,  462. 

"  Morgan,  C.  Lloyd,  Habit  and  Instinct,  41. 
4 


50  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

tention  will  tend  to  persist  when  the  situation  is 
pleasurable,  and  to  lag  when  it  is  painful. 

When  pleasure-pain  elements  are  present  in  a 
situation,  they  tend  to  impel  attention.  The 
strength  of  the  shock  is  dependent  upon  the 
suddenness  and  the  intensity  of  the  impressions 
which  impel  consciousness.  In  order  of  their 
stimulating  efficacy  are  situations  which  produce 
(1)  profound  emotions,  (2)  violent  affective 
conditions,  (3)  transitory  and  superficial  emo- 
tions, unexpected  impressions,  intense  impres- 
sions, (4)  continuous  sensations,  and  (5)  quiet 
mental  application  under  favorable  conditions. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  stability  and  regularity  of 
attention  are  conditioned  by  situations  which 
produce  the  above  changes  in  reverse  order.^^ 

(c)  Quality  of  the  impression.  When  an  im- 
pression is  more  intense,  it  produces  a  greater 
shock  and  stimulates  attention  more  than  when 
it  is  weaker.  Angell  and  Thompson  found  that 
of  two  noises,  when  both  were  unexpected,  'a  loud 
noise  produced  a  much  more  violent  shift  of 
attention  than  a  slight  one.'^^  A  strong  stimu- 
lus will  produce  the  same  effect  as  a  weak  one  in 

'^Angell,  James  Rowland,  and  Thompson,  Helen  Bradford, 
*A  Study  of  the  Relations  between  Certain  Organic  Processes  and 
Consciousness,'  Psych.  Rev.,  6:32-69. 

'^Ibid.,  62. 


THE  OBJECTIVE  ASPECT  51 

half  the  time,  that  is,  attention  is  more  readily 
aroused  by  the  more  intense  impression.  As 
Lough  shows, 

A  strong  stimulus  acting  for  half  the  time  necessary 
to  produce  its  maximum  effect  gives  rise  to  a  sensation  of 
exactly  the  same  intensity  as  that  produced  by  half  as 
strong  a  stimulus  producing  its  maximum  effect.^® 

Differences  between  black  and  white  are  much 
more  quickly  perceived  when  the  sensations  are 
more  intense.  As  the  differences  between  the 
shades  become  smaller,  i.e,,  as  the  impressions 
become  weaker,  the  time  necessary  to  discrimi- 
nate them  becomes  longer.  Intensity  of  impres- 
sion may  therefore  be  considered  as  a  facilitating 
influence  as  far  as  the  impelling  of  attention  is 
concerned.^^ 

An  impression,  too  weak  in  itself  to  excite 
attention,  will  finally  succeed  in  stimulating 
attention  if  repeated.  This  phenomenon  is 
known  as  'summation  of  stimuli.'  A  succession 
of  weak  impressions  then  has  the  force  of  one 
more  intense  stimulus. 

^  Lough,  James  E.,  The  Relations  of  Intensity  to  Duration  of 

Stimulation  in  our  Sensations  of  Light,'  Psych.  Rev.,  3:484-492. 

Cattell,  J.  McKeen,  'The  Time  of  Perception  as  a  Measure  of 

Differences  in  Intensity,'  Phil.  Stud.,  19:63-68,  Henmon,  V.  A.  C, 

?he  Time  of  Perception  as  a  Measure  of  Differences  in  Sensa- 

ions,'  Arch,  of  Phil,  Psch.,  arid  Sci.  Meth.,  8. 


62 


ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 


(d)  Time,  When  more  time  is  allowed  during 
an  act  of  attention,  facilitation  results,  when  less 
time  is  given,  arrest  follows.  In  Griffing's  tests, 
a  decided  fall  was  shown  in  the  number  of  letters 
seen,  when  the  exposure  was  reduced  from  one 
second  to  one  tenth  of  a  second,  and  a  still 
greater  fall  was  evident  in  the  number  seen  cor- 
rectly. Arrest  is  here  shown  both  by  the  de- 
crease in  the  number  seen,  and  by  the  increase  in 
the  errors.^^  The  tests  of  Cron  and  Kraepelin 
show  a  similar  decrease  in  the  number  of  right 
cases  seen  when  the  time  of  exposure  is  decreased. 
With  apertures  respectively  5  mm.,  4  mm.,  and 
3  mm.,  the  corresponding  time  exposures  were 
290  0-,  230  (T,  and  170  o-,  (or  equals  a  thousandth 
of  a  second) .  When  syllables  were  shown 
through  these  openings,  more  wrong  cases  oc- 
curred with  the  shorter  exposures,  as  is  shown 
by  the  following  tabled 


.29 


Per  Cents 

.  OF  Right  Cases  Seen 

Space  in  MM. 

5  mm. 

4   MM. 

3  mm. 

Time  in  % 
Right  cases  in  % 

100 
100 

79.3 
97.0 

58.6 

87.7 

Table  X 
'^See  above,  page  36,  tables   III   and   IV. 
'"Cron,  L.,  und  Kraepelin,  E.,  *Ueber  die  Messung  der  Auf- 
fassungsfahigkeit,'  Psych.  Arh.,  2:203-325. 


THE  OBJECTIVE  ASPECT 


53 


(e)  Age,  The  experiments  conducted  by 
Griffing  show  that  the  older  the  child  who  at- 
tends, the  better  will  be  the  results  of  his  atten- 
tion, both  in  the  number  of  letters  seen  in  the 
given  moment,  and  in  the  accuracy  of  these 
results.  When  six  letters  were  exposed  for  one 
tenth  of  a  second,  and  the  observers  asked  to 
write  down  what  they  saw,  the  older  pupils  were 
able  to  record  a  greater  number  and  a  more  accu- 
ate  result  as  is  shown  by  the  following  table: 


N 

Age 

S 

R 

M.V. 

Max. 

MiN. 

R 

S 

39 

7-9 

11 

4 +.4 

3 

33 

0 

.4 

77 

10-12 

20 

13+  .3 

3 

32 

0 

.6 

73 

13-15 

24 

18+  .6 

6 

37 

0 

.7 

132 

16+  (18) 

32 

27  +  .4 

6 

59 

8 

.8 

N.=:number  tested, 

S.=average   of   the  total   number  of  letters  written  down   as 

seen  in  ten  trials,  six  letters  being  shown  in  each  trial, 
R.— average  of  the  total  number  seen  correctly, 
MAX.=:maximum  of  the  total  number  seen  by  any  individual, 
Miiir.=minimum   of  the   total   number   seen   correctly  by   any 

individual. 

Probable  errors  of  the  values  of  R.  are  given  in  the  R.  column 

preceded  by  the  sign  -{-.'" 

Table  XI 


Messmer  found  that  adults  take  less  time  to  read 
the  ordinary  printed  page  than  do  children,  and 

*•  Griffing,  Harold,  *0n  the  Development  of  Visual  Perception 
and  Attention,'  Am.  Jour,  of  Psych.,  7:230. 


54 


ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 


that  children  of  older  age  excel  those  who  are 
younger.  Thus  an  adult  will  take  200-500  0-  to 
read  a  word  or  letter  at  a  normal  rate  of  speed, 
a  child  of  11  years  of  age,  300-700  ,  one  of  9, 
400-800  <r,  and  one  of  7,  500-1000  cr,  as  the  table 
below  shows  :^^ 


Age 

7 

F 

9 

11 

Adult 

Direct 

Forw. 

Back 

Forw. 

Back 

Forw. 

Back 

Forw. 

Back 

Letter 

R 

G 

R 

G 

R 

G 

R 

G 

R 

G 

R 

G 

R 

G 

R 

G 

N.Wd. 
F.Wd. 
F.  Let. 

775 
632 

585 

770 
750 
750 

990 

785 
775 

952 
950 
810 

415 

380 
460 

460 
425 
465 

585 
500 
590 

645 

577 
555 

375 
305 
410 

420 
337 
410 

565 
495 
525 

600 
575 

472 

297 
295 
270 

305 
290 
310 

467 
370 
372 

465 
395 
360 

Direction,  forward  or  backward. 
Letters,  Roman  or  Gothic, 
N.Wd.,  words  read  at  a  normal  rate  of  speed, 
F.Wd.,  words  read  fast, 
F.Let.,  letters  read  fast. 

Results  are  in  thousandths  of  a  second,  and  are  the  averages  of 
100  words  or  letters  read. 

Table  XII 

(/)  Preadjustment,  When  an  observer  ex- 
pects a  stimulus,  and  gets  ready  to  react  to  it, 
attention  is  usually  facilitated.  When  the  im- 
pression is  unexpected  and  when  the  observer  is 
not   ready   to    receive   it,    attention   is    usually 

"^Messmer,  Oskar,  *Zur  Psychologic  des  Lesens  bei  Kindern 
und  Erwachsenen,'  Arch.  f.  d.  Oes.  Psych.,  2:190-298. 


THE  OBJECTIVE  ASPECT 


55 


arrested.  In  general,  preadjustment  of  the  sense 
organs  and  body  attitude  is  favorable  to  atten- 
tion. Dwelshauvers  made  a  series  of  experi- 
ments in  which  the  subject  reacted  to  a  stimulus 
with  a  signal  and  without  a  signal.  When  no 
signal  preceded  the  stimulus  the  reaction  time 
was  greatly  lengthened.  In  the  table  below  the 
signal  preceded  the  stimulus  at  periods  of  iVo,  3, 
and  6  seconds.  The  results  are  given  in  thou- 
sandths of  a  second. 


SiG.  Interval 

H  seconds 

3  seconds 

6  seconds 

S 

M 

S 

M 

Signal 
No  Signal 

257.02 
308.6 

129.78 
184. 

279.66 
304.03 

133.22 
183.45 

299.86 
301.97 

144.8 
196.97 

S.  attention  concentrated  on  the  stimulus, 
M.  attention  concentrated  on  the  reaction. 

When  no  signal  was  given  the  intervals  of  stimulation  were 
respectively  30,  45,  and  60  seconds.*^ 

Table  XIII 

In  simple  reactions  to  sound  with  no  signal,  with 
irregular  signals,  and  with  regular  signals, 
Martins  obtained  the  following  results  :^^ 

^Dwelshauvers,    Georg,    'Untersuchungen    zur    Mechanik    der 
^activen  Aufmerksamkeit,'  Phil.  Stud.,  6:217-249. 

'Martins,  Gotz,  'Ueber  die  muskulare  Reaction  und  die  Auf- 
lerksamkeit,'  Phil  Stud.,  6:167-216. 


56 


ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 


SiGKAL 

S 

M 

None 

198.4 
186.2 

161.9 
172.5 

Irregular 

108.0 
144.8 
151.7 
171.0 

87.4 
120.8 
123.3 
155.7 

Regular,  1  second 
interval 

123.4 
122.0 
144.6 
157.0 

118.1 
109.0 
134.0 
143.3 

Table  XIV 


Cattell  also  found  that  when  the  time  between 
the  signal  and  the  stimulus  was  delayed  and 
varied  up  to  15  seconds,  the  reaction  time  was 
lengthened.^  ^ 

(g)  Reinforcement.  Ideal  preparation  facili- 
tates attention  especially  when  the  image  or  idea 
corresponds  to  some  aspect  in  the  given  situation. 
In  a  series  of  tests  Miinsterberg  showed  this  con- 
clusively. He  used  400  pictures  5  times  each,  thus 
giving  2,000  exposures.  Two  seconds  before  he 
showed  a  picture  to  the  observer  he  called  out  a 
word.  The  picture  was  then  shown  and  the  sub- 
ject was  asked  to  tell  what  he  saw.    Of  the  2,000 

^Cattell,  James  McKeen,  Tsychometrische  Untersuchungen,' 
Phil  Stud.,  3:333. 


THE  OBJECTIVE  ASPECT  57 

cases,  617,  or  more  than  a  third,  were  directly 
influenced  by  the  word  called  out.  The  subject 
was  not  supposed  to  look  for  the  object  in  the 
picture,  in  fact  did  not  know  that  there  was  such 
an  object  as  the  word  represented.  In  almost 
all  of  the  other  cases  the  picture  was  seen  as  a 
whole,  or  several  objects  in  the  picture  were  seen 
at  once.  In  the  617  cases,  on  the  other  hand,  a 
single  object  in  the  picture  was  distinctly  seen.^^ 
The  effect  of  ideal  reinforcement  is  very  manifest 
in  individuals  who  see  'ghosts,'  and  in  whom 
imagination  overrides  objective  presentations. 
Ideal  reinforcement  also  plays  an  important  part 
in  holding  some  topic  in  the  focus  of  attention. 
In  such  cases  associations  are  revived  which  en- 
able some  aspect  of  the  field  to  persist  in  the 
field  of  clearness  and  distinctness. 

(h)  Practice,  Practice  facilitates  attention, 
lack  of  practice  arrests  it.  One  who  has  had  suffi- 
cient practice  in  a  given  field  can  attend  more 
easily,  more  accurately,  and  more  rapidly.  In 
continuous  work  the  effects  of  practice  are  les- 
sened in  part  by  the  increasing  fatigue.  After  a 
rest,  however,  the  effects  of  practice  are  shown 
by  the  higher  level  of  the  results.  In  memorising 

^  Miinsterberg,  Hugo,  Experimentellen  Psychologie,  Heft 
4:12-17. 


58 


ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 


12  place  figures  for  five  quarters  of  an  hour 
on  four  successive  days  Weygandt  obtained  the 
following  results: 


i  hour 

First  day 

Third  day 

1 

197 

680 

2 

269 

636 

3 

250 

663 

4 

310 

541 

5 

238 

415 

Table  XV 

700 


I  500 

z 

400 


Curve  I.  Effects  of 
fatigue  due  to  con- 
tinued work.  (See 
table    XV,    Third    day.) 


\ 

\ 

\ 

s. 

\ 

J     i 

(         4 
OUR 

t.        5 

The  results  for  the  first  quarter  of  an  hour  on 
each  of  the  four  successive  days  is  given  in  the 
table  below. 


First 

Second 

Third 

Fourth 

197 

360 

680 

864 

Table  XVI 


THE  OBJECTIVE  ASPECT 


59 


12         3        4 

DAY 

CUEVB  II.  Effects  of 
four  days'  practice. 
(See   table    XVI.) 

The  number  of  figures  memorised  in  each  quar- 
ter of  an  hour  are  given.  The  curves  based  on 
these  tables  show  the  effects  of  fatigue  in  one 
day,  and  the  effects  of  practice  on  the  work  of 
the  succeeding  day.^^  The  marking  of  the  letter 
*i'  in  a  text  for  five  successive  quarter  hours  on 
four  successive  days  yielded  similar  results. 


i  Hour 

First  Day 

Third  Day 

1 

2 
3 
4 
5 

12424 
8176 
5612 
6157 
8876 

14566 

13809 

7560 

7508 

7514 

Table  XVII 

"Weygandt,  Wilhelm,  'Ueber  den  Einfluss  des  Arbeitswechsels 
auf  fortlaufende  geistige  Arbeit/  Faych  Arb.,  2:118-202. 


60 


ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 


15000 

14000 

\, 

13000 

s 

12000 

g 11000 

\ 

3 

z 
10000 

9000 
8000 

\ 

\ 

\ 

7000 

1 



L        2 

1,^   3        4        6 

Curve  III.  Effects  of 
fatigue  due  to  continued 
work.  (See  table  XVII, 
Third   day.) 


First  Day 

Second  Day 

Third   Day 

Fourth  Day 

12424 

13876 

14566 

16078 

Table  XVIII 


€uBVE  rv.  Effects 
of  four  days'  prac- 
tice. ( See  table 
XVIII.) 


THE  OBJECTIVE  ASPECT 


61 


When  the  activity  is  more  or  less  new  the  rise 
in  the  curve  may  be  somewhat  steep.  A  level  is 
finally  reached  much  below  or  above  which  the 
curve  does  not  go.  The  effect  of  the  practice  is 
then  at  its  best.  In  reading  Hungarian  text  for 
five  quarter  hour  periods  for  24  successive  days 
(with  one  day's  intermission  on  the  thirteenth 
day),  Weygandt  obtained  the  following  results 
for  the  first  quarter  of  an  hour  on  each  day.  The 
results  give  the  number  of  syllables  read. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

2724 

2716 

2793 

2989 

3027 

2959 

3102 

2803  3314 

2966 

2968 

3186 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

3320 

3212 

3367 

3368 

3585 

3513 

3656 

3433 

3604 

3512 

3507 

3542 

Table  XIX 


123456789  10  11 


19      21.     23      25 


13       15 

DAY 

Curve  V.     Practice  curve,  24  days.     (See  table  XIX.) 

(i)  Fatigue.  Fatigue  arrests  attention.  In 
continuous  work,  the  effects  of  fatigue  are  in 
part  interfered  with  by  the  effects  of  practice. 
The  downward  drop  in  the  curves  given  above 
shows  the  effects  of  fatigue  produced  by  the 


62 


ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 


work  itself.  One  who  is  in  a  fatigued  condition 
similarly  does  less  effective  work  in  new  fields. 
An  interesting  series  of  experiments  was  carried 
on  by  Bettmann.  He  produced  a  state  of  fatigue 
in  two  ways,  first,  by  one  hour's  continuous  addi- 
tion, and  second,  by  a  two  hours'  tramp.  Work 
done  while  in  a  fatigued  condition  was  then  com- 
pared with  similar  work  done  under  normal 
condition.  The  results  are  indicated  below,^^ 
Simple  Reaction  With  Choice 


N 

M 

B 

cr 

E% 

cr 

E% 

or 

E% 

290 

2.7 

403 

1.3 

264 

24. 

291 

1.7 

346 

0.7 

288 

21. 

300 

3.3 

395 

1.0 

221 

35. 

294 

2.6 

381 

1.0 

257 

26.9 

N.=normal,     M.=:mental     fatigue,     B.=bodily     fatigue,  cr  = 
thousandth  of  a  second,  E%=errors. 

Table  XX 
Memorising  12  Place  Figures  in  One  Half  Hour 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

Ave.  " 

N 

468 

564 

613 

709 

761 

661 

M 

474 

413 

478 

528 

476 

B 

405 

401 

506 

518 

454 

Table  XXI 
^Bettmann,    Siegfried,    'Ueber    die    Beeinflussung    einfacher 
psychischer    Vorgange    durch    korperliche    und    geistige    Arbeit/ 
Psych.  Arb.,  1:152-208. 


m 


THE  OBJECTIVE  ASPECT 
Addition  For  One  Half  Hour 


63 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

-: : — 

13 

N 

1662 

1782 

1788 

1961 

1773 

M 

1462 

1532 

1531 

1753 

B 

1502 

1487 

1591 

1704 

Table  XXII 
Syllables  Read  in  One  Half  Hour  (2  Periods  }£  Hour,  I,  II) 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

I 

II 

I 

II 

I 

II 

I 

II 

\ 

II 

I 

II 

N 

8484 

8137 

8757 

9812 

M 

7270 

6961 

8072 

8338 

B 

8410 

8294 

8528 

8288 

Table  XXIII 

In  the  last  test  the  mental  fatigue  was  produced 
by  one  half  hour's  addition,  and  the  bodily- 
fatigue  by  one  half  hour's  walking.  The  effects 
of  fatigue  in  these  tests  is  shown  (1)  by  a  de- 
crease in  reaction  time,  (2)  by  an  increase  in 
error,  (3)  by  a  decrease  in  the  number  memo- 
rised, and  (4)  by  an  arrest  of  the  effects  of  prac- 
tice. The  following  curves  show  the  effects  of 
practice  under  normal  conditions  and  the  arrest 
of  such  effects  in  a  condition  of  fatigue.  The 
curves  are  based  on  the  memory  tests. 


64 


ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 


800 
700 
^600 


,..'500 

■"400 


> 

^ 

/ 

/ 

y' 

/. 

1    1 

DA 

\     ' 

1      12 

CuBVB  VI.  Normal 
increase  due  to 
practice. 


v700 

ce 

ieco 

a; 
600 

y 

Anc\ 

y 

2         ^Av8       ^^ 
Curve  TII.     Inter- 
ference    due     to 
mental   fatigue. 


700 
600 
500 

^_^ 

/ 

DAY 


J3 


Curve  VIII.  Inter- 
ference due  to 
bodily  fatigue. 
(See  table  XXI.) 


The  following  curve  connects  the  eif ects  of  the 
successive  tests  and  shows  the  drop  due  to  fatigue 
and  the  rise  due  to  normal  conditions. 


1 

2 

3 

,4 

5 

6         7 

DAY 

8 

9 

10 

,11 

.12 

13 

N 

,M 

N 

B 

M 

N      B 

CON. 

M 

N 

B 

M 

N 

B 

Curve  IX.     Effects  of  mental  (M)   and  bodily   (B)  fatigue 
on  the  normal   (N).      (See  table  XXI.) 

(j)  Pause.  Under  some  conditions,  pause 
with  rest  is  favorable  to  the  work  immediately  fol- 
lowing, under  other  conditions  it  is  unfavorable. 
During  continuous  work,  the  impulse  to  work 
gradually  decreases,  while  the  fatigue  gradually 
increases.  A  pause  with  rest  should  then  come 
when  the  impulse  to  continue  the  work  is  weak, 


THE  OBJECTIVE  ASPECT  €5 

and  while  the  effects  of  fatigue  are  strongly  in 
evidence.  If,  however,  the  impulse  to  work  is 
strong  and  the  fatigue  is  not  great,  a  pause  may 
be  unfavorable  to  good  results.  The  length  of 
the  pause,  too,  affects  the  work  immediately  fol- 
lowing. If  the  pause  is  too  long  the  effects  of 
practice  may  be  greatly  diminished,  and  the 
impulse  to  work  may  become  very  weak.  If  the 
pause  is  too  short  the  impulse  may  be  interfered 
with  and  the  effects  of  fatigue  may  still  be  strong 
enough  to  hinder  further  eff ort.^^  A  number  of 
experiments  show  that  ( 1 )  a  5  min.  pause  at  the 
end  of  a  half  hour's  work  is  favorable,  (2)  a 
15  min.  pause  under  the  same  conditions  is  un- 
favorable, (3)  a  15  min.  pause  at  the  end  of  an 
hour's  work  is  favorable,  (4)  a  pause  of  over  a 
day  is  unfavorable.^^  The  general  effects  of 
pause  with  rest  are  ( 1 )  passing  away  of  fatigue, 
(2)  weakening  of  the  impulse  to  work,  and  (3) 
decrease  in  the  effects  of  practice. 


40 


^  Heiimann,  Gustav,  'Ueber  die  Beziehungen  zwischen  Arbeits- 
dauer  und  Pausenwirkung,'  Psych.  Arb.,  4:538-602. 

•"Amberg,  Emil,  'Ueber  den  Einfluss  von  Arbeitspausen  auf 
die  geistige  Leistungsfiihigkeit,'  Psych.  Arb.,  1:300-377. 

**Lindley,  Ernest,  'Ueber  Arbeit  und  Ruhe,'  Psych.  Arb., 
3:482-535.  See  also  Rivers,  W.  H.  R.,  und  Kraepelin,  Emil, 
*Ueber  Ermudung  und  Erholung,'  Psych.  Arb.,  1:627-678.  Hylan, 
John  P.,  und  Kraepelin,  Emil,  'Ueber  die  Wirkung  kurzer  Ar- 
beitszeiten,'  Psych.  Arb.,  4:454-494. 

S 


ee 


ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 


When  the  pause  is  filled  with  a  different  kind 
of  work  the  effect  on  a  continuation  of  the  origi- 
nal work  depends  upon  the  kind  and  the  difficulty 
of  the  work  interpolated.  If  the  interpolated 
work  is  of  a  difficult  nature  it  may  interfere  with 
the  work  following.  Thus,  if  memory  work  is 
interpolated  between  periods  of  less  difficult 
work,  the  periods  following  the  interpolated 
work  show  a  decided  fall  in  the  results.  The  fol- 
lowing tables  and  curves  give  some  indication  of 
the  effect  of  such  interpolated  work. 

Addition-.     Inteepolated  Work  (Heavy  Face  Type)  Memorising 
OF  Nonsense  Syllables 


Mhr. 

Iday 

2  day 

3  day 

4  day 

1 

809 

867 

860 

836 

2 

912 

913 

879 

883 

3 

801 

144 

755 

146 

4 

707 

142 

722 

126 

5 

6liS 

678 

775 

687 

Table  XXIV 


Addition  was  of  continuous  one-place  figures.  Work 
of  each  day  was  divided  into  quarter-hour  periods. 
Effect  of  the  interpolation  is  shown  in  the  fifth  quarter- 
hour  Deriods  of  the  second  and  fourth  days/^ 

**Weygandt,  Wilhelm,  *Ueber  den  Einfluss  des  Arbeitswechsels 
auf  fortlaufende  geistige  Arbeit,'  Psych.  Arb.,  2:118-202. 


THE  OBJECTIVE  ASPECT 


67 


Addition".     Interpolated  Work   (Heavy  Face  Type)  Memorising 
OF   12-Place   Figures 


Xhr. 

1  day 

2  day 

3  day 

4  day 

1 

800 

929 

867 

938 

2 

812 

839 

920 

947 

3 

792 

934 

823 

804 

4 

763 

792 

783 

888 

5 

707 

638 

757 

671 

Table  XXV 


'900 


2700 


J- 

J2        3       .4 

.6 

Curve 

X.       Effect     of 

the 

interpolation      of 

difficult    work. 

Dash 

line 

shows    the 

drop 

in  the  last  period- 

(See 

table 

XXIV,    3 

and  4 

days.) 

90D 

S800 

E 

'700 
600 


— V^v- 

— ^^ 


2        3        i 


CuEVB  XI.  Effect  of 
the  interpolation  of 
difficult  work.  Dash 
line  shows  the  drop  in 
the  last  period.  (See 
table  XXV,  3  and  4 
days. ) 


When  the  interpolated  work  is  less  difficult,  the 
effect  on  the  work  following  may  be  beneficial. 
The  following  tables  and  curves  show  this. 


68 


ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 


Memorising    of    Figures.      Interpolated    Work     (Heavy    Face 
Type  )    Addition 


Mhr. 

1  day 

2  day 

3  day 

4  day 

1 

197 

360 

680 

864 

2 

269 

395 

636 

780 

3 

250 

698 

663 

745 

4 

310 

662 

541 

689 

6 

238 

408 

415 

672 

Table  XXVI 

Memorising  of  Nonsense  Syllables.     Interpolated  Work,  Slow- 
Writing 


Xhr. 

1  day 

2  day 

3  day 

4  day 

1 

128 

101 

128 

120 

9  . 

88 

91 

116 

122 

3 

86 

136 

120 

155 

4 

80 

137 

88 

155 

5 

59 

111 

88 

145 

Table  XXVII 


The  change  in  the  kind  of  work  is  beneficial  even 
if  such  interpolated  work  is  difficult  in  itself. 
This  is  shown  in  the  above  table,  and  more  con- 
clusively in  the  one  following. 


i^ 


THE  OBJECTIVE  ASPECT  69 

Marking  a  Letter.     Interpolated  Work,  Memorisiko  of  Figures 


Xhr. 

Iday 

2  day 

3  day 

4  day 

1 

15556 

14890 

16122 

14473 

2 

18281 

8514 

12456 

11882 

3 

14343 

942 

7832 

1008 

4 

7918 

942 

7355 

1056 

5 

9546 

10884 

6987 

16322 

Table  XXVIII 


130 
120 
^110 

i 
I 

tioo 

90 


2.U  3        ^ 

}i  HOUR 


Curve  XII.  Effect  of 
the  interpolation  of 
easy  work.  Dash  line 
shows  the  rise  in  the 
last  period.  (See  table 
XXVII.) 


16000 
15000 
14000 
^^3000 
12000 

I'liooo 

10000 
9000 

/ 

^ 

/ 

/ 

f 

\ 

\ 

/ 
/ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

) 

<^^ 

fiOOO 

^V 

L        i 

'^„c 

J        4 

UR 

5 

Curve  XIII.  Effect  of 
the  interpolation  of  dif- 
ferent work.  Dash  line 
shows  the  rise  in  the 
last  period.  (See  table 
XXVIII.) 


The  interpolated  work,  memorising  of  figures,  is 
so  different  from  the  basic  work,  marking  a 


70  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

letter  in  a  text,  that  the  interpolation  acts  almost 
like  a  pause  with  rest.  We  may  say  that  inter- 
polated work  acts  favorably,  (1)  when  it  is  dif- 
ferent in  kind  from  the  basic  work,  and  (2) 
when  it  is  less  difficult.  It  acts  unfavorably,  ( 1 ) 
when  it  is  the  same  in  kind,  and  (2)  when  it  is 
more  difficult.^^ 

{k)  Hunger.  A  most  interesting  series  of 
tests  was  made  by  Weygandt  to  establish  the 
effects  of  hunger  on  mental  work.  He  went 
without  food  for  periods  of  12,  24,  36,  48,  and  72 
hours,  and  while  in  this  condition  went  through 
a  number  of  experiments.  The  results  of  his 
tests  showed  (1)  that  simple  apprehension  of 
syllables  and  words  was  not  hindered  to  any 
great  extent,  (2)  that  association  time  was  not 
influenced  much,  (3)  that  memorising  was 
arrested,  (4)  that  distraction  had  a  greater 
arresting  power,  and  (5)  that  reaction  with 
choice  gave  a  larger  number  of  errors.  The 
results  of  some  of  his  work  are  given  below.^^ 

«/6iU,  123,  133,  136,  139,  142,  144,  147,  152,  155,  157,  161, 
168,  190. 

« Weygandt,  Wilhelm,  'Ueber  die  Beeinflussung  geistiger 
JLeistungen  durch  Hungern,'  Psych.  Arb.,  4:45-173. 


THE  OBJECTIVE  ASPECT  71 

■h:  Memorising   of   Nostsexse    Syllables    (12   ik    a   Group) 


D.y 

1 

2 

2 

3 

3 

4 

4 

5 

5 

6 

6 

7 

7 

8 

8 

9 

9 

10 

m""' 

E 

M 

E 

M 

E 

M 

E 

M 

E 

M 

E 

M 

E 

M 

E 

M 

E 

M 

Kcon. 

N 

N 

12 

24 

(N. 

N 

N 

N 

12 

24 

36 

48 

(N) 

N 

F 

N 

N 

N 

iSmin. 
ISmin. 

149 
142 

136 
133 

108 
100 

87 
92 

176 
177 

230 
233 

226 
266 

322 
290 

206 
189 

208 
144 

137 
151 

137 
92 

181 
154 

218 
214 

176 
120 

285 
293 

324'396 
262356 

30min. 

291 269 

208 

179 

353 

483 

492 

612 

395 

352 

288 

229 

335 

432 

296 

518 

586  752 

1 

N=normal,  12,  etc.,=hunger  for  12  hours,  etc.,  F=mental 
fatigue,  E=:evening,  M:=morning,  (N)=normal  period  immedi- 
ately following  a  period  of  hunger. 

Table  XXIX 


^t- 

'  1 

L 

/ 

\ 

/ 

""^ 

r — 

a: 

s 

5- 

/ 

\ 

lUNGE 

» 

/ 

s 

/ 

I 

/ 

/ 

^- 

N, 

/ 

/ 

\ 

/ 

"^ 

\ 

/ 

s 

\ 

/ 

■   > 

f 

■\ 

/ 

1        2 


4^55 

DAY 


6        7 


9       10 


EMEMEMEMEMEMEMEMEM 

TIME 

N      N     12     24    (N)    N      N      N      12     24     36     48    (N)    N      F      N       N     N 

COND. 

j        Curve  XrV.     Effects  of  hunger.     E,  evening.     M,  morning.     N,  normal, 
;  12,   24,  etc.,  hunger  for  12,  24,  etc.,  hours,   (N),  normal  period  after 

I  hunger.     F,  mental  fatigue.      (See  table  XXIX.) 


72 


ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 


(Z)  Obstructed  breathing.  By  means  of  a 
nostril  plug,  Kafemann  produced  interference 
with  breathing  similar  to  that  caused  by  adenoids. 
The  obstruction  in  the  breathing  produced  a  de- 
crease in  the  efficiency  of  the  work  attempted. 
In  the  addition  of  figures  the  following  results 
were  secured: 

Addition  for  Oxe-Quarter  Hour  Periods  With  and  Without 
Obstruction 


Normal 

Normal 

Normal 

Iday 

1306 

1324 

1256 

1249 

1246 

1323 

Normal 

Obstructed 

Normal 

2  day 

1334 

1213 

1223 

1189 

1184 

1276 

Normal 

Normal 

Normal 

3day 

1493 

1447 

1430            1399 

1363 

1381 

Normal 

Obstructed 

Normal 

4  day 

1453 

1362 

1356 

1340 

1366 

1421 

Table  XXX 


1500 


1.1400 


1300 


OBSTf  .  BREATH 


_        J        3        4        5        I 

H  HOUR 

Curve  XV.  Effects  of  ob- 
structed breathing.  (See  ta- 
ble XXX.) 


On  the  second  and  fourth  days,  a  quarter-hour's 
addition  under  normal  conditions  was  followed 
by  an  hour's  addition  with  obstructed  breathing, 


THE  OBJECTIVE  ASPECT 


73 


and  this  was  followed  by  another  quarter-hour's 
addition  under  normal  conditions.^^ 

(m)  Weak  mindedness.  In  general,  weak 
mindedness,  when  compared  with  the  normal, 
shows  itself  in  ( 1 )  increase  in  error  in  the  appre- 
hension of  syllables  and  words,  (2)  increase  in 
reaction  time,  and  (3)  decrease  in  the  amount  of 
work  done.  Reis  tested  six  paralytics  (P) ,  eight 
hebephreniacs,  (H),  and  two  normal  subjects, 
(N)  with  the  following  results. 

Apprehension  of  Nonsense  Syllables 


10  mm. 

5  mm. 

R 

W 

O 

R 

W 

0 

N 
H 
P 

96.94 
77.97 
69.45 

2.86 
11.40 

28.82 

0.19 

10.63 

1.73 

93.90 
61.10 
57.98 

5.73 

20.08 
35.85 

0.37 

18.82 

6.17 

One-Syllable 

Words 

N 
H 
P 

96.25 
84.56 
74.44 

3.48 

5.88 
18.30 

0.27 
9.59 
7.36 

97.25 
71.19 
52.86 

2.74 

9.50 

14.01 

0. 

19.31 
29.76 

Exposure  of  10  mm.  gave  a  time  of  670  c,  one  of  5  mm.  gave 
a  time  of  335  o". 

R=number  of  right  cases,  W=:number  of  wrong  cases, 
0=number  omitted. 

Table  XXXI 

**  Kafemann,  Rudolf,  *Ueber  die  Beeinflussung  geistiger 
Leistungen  durch  Behinderung  der  Nasenathmung,'  Psych.  Arh., 
4:435-453. 


74  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

Reaction   Times 


N 

H 

P 

Time 

% 

Time 

% 

Time 

% 

Color 

549 

100 

720 

131.2 

756 

137.7 

Letter 

627 

100 

709 

113.1 

807 

128.9 

Word 

554 

100 

697 

125.2 

799 

144.1 

Addition 

1071 

100 

1243 

115.1 

1442 

1.34.6 

Judgment  I 

931 

100 

1074 

115  6 

1434 

154.0 

Judgment  II 

862 

100 

1103 

127.3 

1308 

150.7 

The  time  is  given  in  sigmas,  or  thousandths  of  a  second. 

Recognition  of  a  color,  letter,  and  word  was  timed. 

Addition  of  two  numbers  between  1  and  19  was  required. 

Judgment  I.  Subject  was  required  to  tell  which  of  two  classes, 
*living*  or  'dead,'  a  one-syllable  word  described. 

Judgment  II.  Subject  was  asked  whether  the  word  excited  a 
pleasant  or  an  unpleasant  feeling. 

Table  XXXII 


Addition  of   7-|-7,  etc.,  ik   1   Minute 


N 

H 

P 

32.2 

29.2 

30.9 

Addition  of  12-)-12,  etc.,  in  1  Minute 

25.9 

22.6 

22.3 

Table  XXXIII 


THE  OBJECTIVE  ASPECT  75 

The  afflicted  subjects  showed  greater  fatigue 
and  less  practice  effects.  The  paralytics  were 
least  efficient  in  this  respect/^ 

(n)  Extraneous  stimulation.  When  two  ac- 
tivities are  in  the  same  field  or  in  related  fields, 
one  will  tend  to  arrest  the  other.  Vogt  recited 
a  poem  orally,  and  at  the  same  time  added  single 
figures  without  writing  down  the  answers.  He 
found  some  difficulty  in  retaining  the  sums  in  his 
memory.  Interference  was  also  felt  with  the 
muscular-acoustic  images  of  the  sums,  and  there 
was  eye-strain  due  to  an  effort  to  visualise  the 
sums.  During  the  first  day  only  oral  rendition 
of  the  poem  was  attempted.  On  the  second  and 
third  days  addition  of  figures  was  included  dur- 
ing the  second  half  hour  of  the  work.  The  ratios 
of  the  number  of  syllables  recited  with  and  with- 
out interference  is  given  in  the  last  column.  The 
results  of  the  tests  are  as  f oUows.^^ 

^'Reis,  Joseph,  'Ueber  einfache  psychologische  Versuche  an 
Gesunden  und  Geisteskranken,'  Psych.  Arh.,  2:587-694.  See  also 
Cron,  Ludwig,  und  Kraepelin,  Emil,  'Ueber  die  Messung  der 
AuflFassungsfahigkeit,'  Psych.  Arh.,  2:203-325. 

**  Vogt,  Ragnar,  'Ueber  Ablenbarkeit  und  Gewohnungf ahigkeit,* 
Psych.  Stud.y  3:62-201. 


76 


ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

Oral   Recitation-   With    Addition 


I(X) 

KX) 

n(M) 

n(X) 

III 

I:II::100 

1 

2 
3 

1325 
1574 
1595 

1227 
1502 
1467 

1269 
596 
680 

1215 
530 
620 

1180 
1104 
1362 

95.5 
36.7 
42.5 

Table  XXXIV 


CUBVB  XVI.  Effects  of 
extraneous  stimulation. 
(See  table  XXXIV.) 

Another  series  of  tests  included  reading  and 
writing,  separately  and  together.  In  the  follow- 
ing table,  the  first  column  gives  the  number  of 
letters  written  in  five  minutes,  the  second  the 
number  of  syllables  spoken  in  five  minutes,  and 


THE  OBJECTIVE  ASPECT 


77 


the  third  the  number  of  letters  written,  together 
with  the  number  of  syllables  read  while  the  writ- 
ing was  going  on.  The  ratios  are  given  in  the 
last  columns. 


Reading  With  Writing 


Day 

W 

R 

W+  R 

W:W::100: 

R:R::100: 

1 

857 

3502 

570+1739 

66.5 

48.6 

2 

878 

3740 

753+2273 

85.9 

60.9 

3 

903 

3693 

786+2280 

87.0 

61.7 

4 

926 

3788 

828+2459 

89.4 

64.9 

6 

941 

3872 

904+2679 

96.1 

69.2 

Table  XXXV 


It  is  to  be  noted  that  during  the  third  periods, 
more  work  was  done,  but  each  was  somewhat 
arrested.  In  crossing  out  letters  Vogt  found 
that  he  made  more  errors  and  marked  less  letters 
with  a  text  having  meaning  than  with  nonsense 
words.  The  meaning  of  the  text  acted  as  an 
arresting  influence.^^ 

When  stimulation  is  in  two  fields  not  closely- 
related,  excitation  in  the  one  may  facilitate  atten- 
tion in  the  other.  Darlington  and  Talbot  found 
that  while  music  was  played  on  a  piano  during 
the  lifting  of  weights,  there  was  better  discrimi- 
nation than  when  no  music  was  played.    So,  too, 

*'See  also  Kleinknecht,  H.,  The  Interference  of  Optical 
Stimuli,'  Harvard  Psychological  SPudiea,  2:299-308. 


78  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

Moyer  concludes  from  a  series  of  experiments 
that  visualisation  of  colors,  hearing  of  sounds 
made  by  falling  balls,  and  the  smelling  of  odors 
are  not  arrested  by  such  processes  as  adding, 
writing,  and  the  like.  In  these  tests  the  criterion 
of  arrest  was  error.  There  was  no  record  of 
time.  Some  arrest  may  have  occurred  in  the 
increase  of  time  due  to  the  added  activity.  Even 
though  there  were  no  more  errors  in  the  tests, 
there  might  have  been  an  increase  in  the  time 
needed  to  discriminate  the  weights,  recognise  the 
odors,  add,  etc.^® 

In  retinal  rivalry,  one  figure  in  the  stereoscope 
may  be  considered  as  an  influence  which  ar- 
rests the  other.  When  the  figure  has  some 
content  it  tends  to  hold  the  field  longer  than  one 
which  is  empty,  i.e,j  to  arrest  the  simpler  figure 
for  a  longer  time.  Breese  recorded  the  time 
during  which  each  of  a  number  of  figures  held 
the  attention.  His  results  are  given  in  the  table 
below.^^ 

**  Darlington,  L.,  and  Talbot,  E.  B.,  'Distraction  by  Musical 
Sounds,'  Am.  Jour,  of  Psych.,  9:332-345.  Moyer,  F.  E.,  'Addi- 
tion and  Cognate  Exercises:  Discrimination  of  Odors,'  Ibid., 
8:405-413.  Birch,  L.  G.,  'Distraction  by  Odors,'  Ibid.,  9:44-55. 
Swift,  E.  J.,  'Disturbance  of  the  Attention  during  Simple  Mental 
Processes,'  Ibid.,  5:1-19. 

"Breese,  B.  B.,  *0n  Inhibition,'  Psych.  Rev.,  Man.  Sup^ 
3:1-65. 


THE  OBJECTIVE  ASPECT 


79 


Experiments 


Red,  per  cent  of  I    Green,  per  cent         No.  of  changes 
times  seen        |      of  times  seen for  each  field 


1 

30 

70 

19 

■'     * 

82 

68 

27 

1        8 

27 

78 

18 

*        4 

28 

72 

23 

5 

21 

79 

21 

6 

36 

64 

20 

7 

27 

73 

21 

8 

30 

70 

21 

9 

34 

66 

19 

10 

23 

77 

22 

11 

24 

76 

20 

^ 

% 

12 

43 

67 

25 

lA 

42 

58 

25 

U 

45 

55 

88 

15 

50 

50 

27 

16 

57 

43 

22 

17 

59 

41 

29 

18 

52 

48 

21 

19 

52 

48 

24 

^ 

@ 

20 

39 

61 

26 

21 

40 

60 

31 

22 

53 

47 

25 

23 

49 

51 

27 

Table  XXXVI 


80  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

In  experiments  3,  4,  7,  8,  10, 11, 14, 15, 18,  19, 
22,  and  23,  the  fields  were  reversed. 

§  ii.  illustration 

1.  Clearness^  Distinctness,  Persistence. 

(a)  Literary. 

It  was  such  a  crowded  scene,  and  there  were  so  many 
objects  to  attract  attention,  that  at  first  Nicholas  stared 
about  him,  really  without  seeing  an3rthing  at  all.  By 
degrees,  however,  the  place  resolved  itself  into  a  bare  and 
dirty  room  with  a  couple  of  windows,  whereof  a  tenth 
part  might  be  of  glass,  the  remainder  being  stopped  up 
with  old  copybooks  and  paper.  There  were  a  couple  of 
old  rickety  desks,  cut  and  notched,  and  inked  and  dam- 
aged, in  every  possible  way;  two  or  three  forms,  a 
detached  desk  for  Squeers,  and  another  for  his  assistant. 
The  ceiling  was  supported  like  that  of  a  barn,  by  cross 
beams  and  rafters,  and  the  walls  were  so  stained  and 
discoloured,  that  it  was  impossible  to  tell  whether  they 
had  ever  been  touched  with  paint  or  whitewash. — Nicho- 
las Nickleby,  Dickens. 

Suddenly  I  perceive  on  my  right,  not  far  from  me, 
large  dark  object  which  I  had  not  noticed  before,  an< 
which  is  lightly  and  noiselessly  approaching  my  ambush] 
and  the  watering-place.  Without  a  halt  the  dark, 
mighty  mass  comes  nearer  and  still  nearer.  Now  I  can 
plainly  see  that  there  are  two  objects,  one  in  front  of 
the  other.  They  stand  opposite  me,  not  more  than  one 
hundred  and  fifty  paces  off.  They  are  rhinoceroses,  full- 
grown  ones,  coming  here  to  drink.     How  gigantic  they 


THE  OBJECTIVE  ASPECT 


81 


look  by  moonlight! — Flashlights  in  the  Jungle,  C.  G. 
Schillings. 

(6)  Eooperimental, 

Look  for  the  'man  in  the  moon.'  Note  the  process  of 
differentiation,  selection,  etc. 

Follow  some  instrument  in  an  orchestra.  Compare  its 
sound  with  that  of  the  other  instruments. 

Strike  the  chord  c-e-g  strongly  upon  the  piano  key- 
board, directing  the  attention  to  the  c.  Is  it  intensified? 
Strike  the  chord  again,  directing  the  attention  to  the  e 
or  g.    Is  the  tone  attended-to  intensified?"* 

2.  Fluctuation. 

Rotate  a  white  disc  similar  to  the  illustration  below. 
Fixate  the  faintest  grey  ring.  Observe  the  fluctuations 
in  intensity."^ 


Fia.   V 
""Titchener,  E.  B.,  Experimental  Psychology,  l:Pt.  I,  111. 
"^  Myers,  C.  S.,  A  Text-Book  of  Experimental  Psychology,  415. 


82 


ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 


Fixate  some  point  on  be  in  the  following  figure.  What 
is  the  appearance  of  the  figure?  Move  the  eye  slowly 
from  b  to  e,  and  back  again.  Does  the  figure  change  in 
perspective.?  Move  the  eye  from  b  to  c,  and  back  again. 
Is  there  any  change.?  Fixate  any  point  on  line  be. 
Note  whether  the  line  is  in  front  of  or  behind  line  ac.^^ 


Fig.   VI 

Select  a  piece  of  cork  which  can  barely  be  felt  when 
resting  on  the  back  of  the  hand.  Note  whether  or  not 
there  is  any  fluctuation  in  the  pressure. 

3.  Unity. 

Look  at  each  of  the  following  groups  of  lines.  Is 
there  any  difference  when  you  look  at  them  as  a  group, 
(a  two-group,  or  a  three-group,  or  a  four-group),  and 
when  you  look  at  them  as  two,  three,  or  four  individual 
lines  ? 


«  Titchener,  E.  B.,  Ibid.,  154. 


THE  OBJECTIVE  ASPECT 


Fia.  VII 
Look  at  the  following  series  of  lines.     Is  there  any 
grouping?    Note  the  different  groupings. 


Pig.  VIII 
Fixate  the  figure  below.  Note  the  different  units 
which  shape  themselves.  Are  the  elements  of  each  group 
seen  as  a  group  or  as  individuals?  Look  at  the  dots  in 
each  group  separately.  Look  at  them  as  a  group. 
What  is  the  difference  between  the  two  acts  of  attention  ?^^ 


Pia.  IX 
''McDougall,  W.,  *The  Physiological  Factors  of  the  Attention 
Proce*;  III,  Mind,  N.  S.,  12:487. 


84  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

Read  a  page  visually  (silent  reading),  and  note  the 
time.  Read  the  same  page  visually,  attending  to  the 
letters  and  not  to  the  words.  Note  the  time.  Note  the 
difference  in  the  groupings.  Are  the  words  seen  as  single 
words  or  as  aggregations  of  separate  letters? 

4.  Facilitation  and  Arrest. 

With  proper  laboratory  equipment,  any  of  the  ex- 
periments described  in  the  preceding  section  can  be 
repeated.  For  purposes  of  illustration,  simpler  ones  can 
be  tried. 

(a)  Simplicity  versus  complexity. 

Place  two  figures  in  a  stereoscope,  one  simple,  one  com- 
plex. Note  the  difference  in  the  time  in  which  each  holds 
the  attention.  (The  figures  used  by  Breese  are  good. 
See  above,  Table  XXVI). 

Why  does  it  take  longer  to  read  the  words  of  a  page, 
than  to  read  the  letters  of  the  same  page? 

(6)  Time. 

Read  the  words  of  a  page  and  note  the  time.  Try 
to  read  two  pages  within  the  same  time.  What  will  be 
the  result? 

Mark  all  the  a's  in  a  text  for  a  period  of  fifteen  min- 
utes. Try  to  mark  the  same  number  in  eight  minutes. 
Note  the  result,  with  reference  to  (1)  number  of  letters 
marked,  (2)  number  of  errors,  (3)  number  of  letters 
skipped. 

{c)  Age, 
Let  children  of  different  ages  read  for  five  minutes. 


THE  OBJECTIVE  ASPECT  85 

Count  the  number  of  syllables  read  by  each  child  and 
compare  these  numbers  with  the  ages  of  the  children. 
Repeat  Griffing's  tests. 

{d)  Preadjustment 

Let  children  add  single  figures  read  out  to  them,  with 
signal,  and  without.  (Some  signal,  as  'Ready,'  or  'At- 
tention,' may  be  used. )  Give  such  sums  with  ( 1 )  regular 
signals,  (2)  irregular  signals,  (3)  no  signals  and  irregu- 
larly or  suddenly.     Note  the  difference  in  the  results. 

(e)  Reinforcement, 
Repeat  Miinsterberg's  experiment. 

(/)  Practice, 

Mark  a's  for  fifteen  minutes  in  the  morning  and  fifteen 
minutes  in  the  afternoon  of  each  of  ten  successive  days. 
Compare  the  numbers  marked  and  plot  the  corresponding 
curve.  On  the  eleventh  day,  read  some  text  and  note  the 
appearance  of  the  a  as  compared  with  the  other  letters. 

(g)  Fatigue. 

Mark  a's  for  an  hour  or  an  hour  and  a  half,  and  note 
the  number  marked  every  five  or  ten  minutes.  Plot  the 
corresponding  curve. 

Produce  fatigue  by  an  hour's  continuous  addition, 
and  read  for  half  an  hour.  Count  the  number  of  sylla- 
bles read.  Read  for  half  an  hour  at  the  same  time  on 
the  next  day  when  not  fatigued.  Compare  the  results. 
Mark  letters  for  half  an  hour  under  similar  conditions. 
Memorise  poetry.  Produce  fatigue  by  a  two-hours' 
tramp,  and  repeat  the  experiments.    Compare  the  results. 


86  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

(h)  Pause. 

Mark  a's  for  two  hours.  On  the  following  day  repeat 
the  test,  but  rest  for  five  minutes  at  the  end  of  each  half 
hour.  Compare  the  results.  Vary  the  periods  of  pause 
and  the  periods  of  work.  Add  figures,  memorise  non- 
sense syllables,  etc.,  under  similar  conditions. 

Mark  a's  half  an  hour,  read  for  half  an  hour,  mark  a's 
again,  and  follow  with  half  an  hour's  reading,  in  con- 
tinuous periods  of  half  an  hour  each  for  a  period  of 
two  and  a  half  hours.  Make  the  periods  of  work  and 
rest  fifteen  minutes  each.  Compare  the  results  with 
those  obtained  in  marking  a's  for  two  and  a  half  hours 
without  the  interpolated  reading.  Use  a  day  for  each 
experiment.  Alternate  marking  a's  with  marking  ^'s, 
with  memorising,  with  continuous  addition,  etc.  Use  any 
of  these  occupations  as  basic,  and  interpolate  any  other. 
Note  which  facilitate  and  which  arrest  the  basic  work. 

(i)   Eoctraneous  stimulation. 

Read  some  passage  visually  for  one  minute,  and  at 
the  same  time  repeat  the  multiplication  table  of  7's. 
Note  the  time  which  it  takes  to  repeat  each  separately. 
Compare  the  resulting  times. 

Write  a  passage  from  a  book  and  at  the  same  time 
multiply  the  numbers  from  5  on,  by  13  for  three  min- 
utes. Note  the  time  necessary  to  do  each  separately.  Is 
the  total  time  greater  or  less  than  three  minutes.'* 

Repeat  Vogt's  experiments. 

(j)   General. 

Test  underweight  children,  overweight  children,  back- 
ward children,  defective  children,  etc.     Let  them  cross 


THE  OBJECTIVE  ASPECT  87 

)ut  letters  for  a  given  period,  add  columns  of  figures, 
livide,  write,  read,  etc.,  and  note  (1)  the  time,  (2)  the 
amount  of  work  done,  and  (3)  the  errors. 

§  III.  DEVELOPMENT 

The  general  change  in  a  field  under  fixation  is 
Tom  indistinctness  to  distinctness  and  from  ob- 
scureness  to  clearness.  In  attention  to  any 
totality,  the  dim  background  gradually  falls 
away  and  leaves  the  situation  clear  and  distinct. 
Further  manipulation  and  control  results  in  a 
diif erentiation  of  parts,  in  greater  systematisa- 
tion  and  order,  in  an  increase  of  clearness.  The 
process,  in  short,  is  from  discreteness  to  unity. 

In  the  passage  from  childhood  to  adolescence, 
and  then  to  adult  life,  there  is  an  increase  in  the 
grasp  of  attention  at  any  given  moment,  and  a 
greater  ability  to  hold  attention  for  a  longer 
period  of  time.  The  tests  of  Griffing  show  the 
development  in  the  grasp  of  attention  and 
Messmer's  tests  in  reading  indicate  a  similar 
development.  As  children  grow  older  they  are 
able  to  grasp  more  at  a  given  moment,  and  to  do 
this  within  less  time. 

§  IV.  EXPLANATION 

1.  Biological.      Reaction,    adjustment    and 
)ntrol  are  not  effective  vitally  unless  there  is  a 


88  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

more  or  less  distinct  field  before  the  organism. 
The  essential  aspect  of  a  situation,  the  stimulating 
part  of  the  field,  the  pleasure-pain  feature  of  an 
environment  must  be  singled  out  and  selected  if 
the  individual  is  to  persist  as  an  individual.  On 
this  account  every  part  of  the  organism  strains 
to  further  the  production  of  distinctness  in  the 
essential  aspect  of  any  background.  The  bull- 
dog jumps  for  his  enemy's  throat.  The  deer 
turns  his  head  towards  a  light,  or  a  noise.  Fail- 
ure in  selection  may  mean  death.  The  surgeon 
who  marks  the  place  where  he  is  to  operate,  and 
carefully  removes  tissue,  avoids  blood  vessels, 
and  inserts  a  forceps  or  a  knife,  is  an  example 
emphasising  the  same  thing. 

In  social  and  economic  control,  progress  in 
any  field  is  similarly  the  result  of  selection  and 
specialisation.  A  situation  is  first  dealt  with  in 
a  more  or  less  general  way,  differentiation  is 
gradually  effected,  and  then,  piece  by  piece,  the 
situation  is  attacked,  analysed,  studied,  recon- 
structed, and  again  united  in  a  more  highly 
developed  form.  The  development  of  factories, 
branch  stores,  special  departments,  offices,  agents, 
etc.,  is  characteristic  of  present-day  life. 

2.  Psychological,  {a)  Clearness,  distinct- 
ness, and  persistence.    The  distinctness,  etc.,  of 


THE  OBJECTIVE  ASPECT  89 

a  situation  is  due  to  two  sets  of  influences,  ( 1 )  ob- 
j active,  and  (2)  subjective.  Some  of  the  more 
important  of  the  objective  conditions  which  give 
rise  to  clearness  and  distinctness  are  (1)  differ- 
ence, (2)  change,  (3)  pleasure-pain,  and  (4) 
time.  An  impression  differing  greatly  from 
those  concomitant  with  it  will  tend  to  attract 
attention.  The  effects  of  difference  in  the  in- 
tensity of  impressions  has  been  experimentally 
shown.^^  Common  observation  points  to  the 
same.  A  loud  noise,  a  sudden  report,  a  straw  hat 
in  winter,  a  cooling  breeze  on  a  hot  day,  the  note 
of  a  piccolo  or  the  clang  of  a  triangle  in  an 
orchestra,  these  attract  the  attention.  Change 
or  variety  also  tends  to  stimulate  and  hold  the 
attention.  An  object  which  is  more  complex  may 
cause  the  attention  to  persist  for  a  longer  time. 
A  simpler  object  may  be  more  readily  cognised, 
but  its  holding  powers  are  not  so  strong.  Pleas- 
ure-pain excites  attention  as  already  indicated 
in  the  preceding  section.  Finally,  when  more 
time  is  allowed,  the  development  of  clearness  and 
distinctness  are  facilitated. 

Of  the  more  important  subjective  factors 
which  facilitate  clearness,  distinctness,  and  per- 
sistence are  (1)  preadjustment,   (2)  reinforce- 

"See  above,  page  50. 


90  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

ment,  (3)  practice,  (4)  pause  (rest),  (5)  age, 
and  (6)  natural  vitality  and  mental  ability. 
When  one  expects  an  impression  and  is  ready  to 
receive  it,  the  organs,  muscles,  etc.,  are  set  in  a 
certain  direction.  There  is  less  waste  in  reaction 
and  the  field  does  not  become  blurred  or  indis- 
tinct through  wrong  or  inadequate  adjustments. 
When  there  is  ideal  reinforcement,  the  incoming 
impression  is  received  by  a  disposition  or  system 
of  images  or  ideas.  By  association,  the  impres- 
sion is  enabled  to  persist  in  the  series  of  images 
or  ideas  revived.  Attention  to  a  time-table  is  an 
example  of  such  persistence.  Practice  facilitates 
attention  in  that  there  is  little  waste.  The  situa- 
tion and  the  organism  fit  each  other.  The  organic 
set  of  the  individual  corresponds  so  closely  to  the 
different  aspects  of  the  situation,  that  the  latter 
is  enabled  to  flash  into  the  focus  of  consciousness 
at  once.  Rest  allows  all  the  other  factors  to 
operate  in  their  full  strength.  An  older  indi- 
vidual is  better  able  to  attend  since  his  wider 
experience  is  accountable  for  more  perfect  prac- 
tice, more  highly  organised  mental  dispositions 
and  systems,  and  a  more  economical  distribution 
of  energy. 

(b)   Fluctuation.      By    considerable    experi- 
mentation, the  following  facts  have  been  ascer- 


THE  OBJECTIVE  ASPECT  91 

tained  in  connection  with  physiological  changes : 

(1)  Blood  pressure  sinks  with  every  inspira- 
tion and  rises  with  every  expiration,  though  such 
concomitance  is  not  exactly  synchronous. 

(2)  Several  such  movements  are  contained 
in  a  larger  rhythm,  the  so-called  Traube-Hering 
wave.^^ 

(3)  Sensory  stimulation  tends  to  affect 
respiration  and  increase  the  length  of  the  Traube- 
Hering  waves. 

(4)  Fatigue,  as  evidenced  by  diurnal  changes, 
tends  to  shorten  the  Traube-Hering  waves. 

(5)  Pathological  conditions,  either  natural 
(abnormal  depression)  or  artificial  (stimulation 
by  alcohol),  tend  to  shorten  the  Traube-Hering 
waves  and  to  induce  fatigue. 

These  vasomotor  rhythms  are  controlled  by  a 
system  of  vasomotor  nerves  which  have  their  cen- 
tre in  the  cervical  region  and  which  control 
constriction  and  dilation  of  the  blood  vessels. 
The  rhythmic  rise  and  fall  of  blood  pressure  is 
measured  by  the  rhythm  in  the  rise  and  fall  of  the 
volume  of  the  arm  or  finger. 

By  laboratory  tests  the  following  facts  have 

^American  Text-Book  of  Physiology,  1:201.  Howell,  William 
H.,  A  Text-Book  of  Physiology,  Ch.  XXXII. 


92  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

been  ascertained  with  reference  to  fluctuation  of 
attention  to  minimal  stimuli: 

(1)  Fluctuations  of  attention  have  a  rhythm 
in  which  periods  of  brightest  vision,  for  example, 
are  succeeded  by  periods  of  dimmer  vision. 

(2)  These  waves  correspond  closely  to 
Traube-Hering  waves,  and  approximately  with 
changes  in  respiration. 

(3)  Sensory  stimulation  tends  to  increase  the 
periods  of  distinctness  and  illumination  while  in- 
creasing the  length  of  the  Traube-Hering  waves. 

(4)  Fatigue,  as  evidenced  by  diurnal  changes, 
tends  to  decrease  the  periods  of  distinctness  and 
illumination,  while  decreasing  the  length  of  the 
Traube-Hering  waves. 

(5)  Pathological  conditions  affect  the  rhythm 
of  fluctuation  as  they  do  the  rhythm  of  the 
Traube-Hering  waves. 

In  attention  to  minimal  impressions,  the  fluctu- 
ations are  in  all  probability  conditioned  by  vaso- 
motor and  respiratory  changes.  In  part,  fatigue 
of  end  organs  and  fluctuation  of  muscles  of 
accommodation  operate  in  causing  fluctuation. 
In  attention  which  is  conditioned  in  part  by 
accommodations  of  end  organs  and  by  ideal  rein- 
forcement, fluctuation  does  not  exist  in  a  pure 
state.    In  such  a  case  it  may  be  controlled  in  part 


THE  OBJECTIVE  ASPECT  93 

)y  ideal  and  motor  elements.  This  may  happen 
in  the  case  of  retinal  rivalry  or  in  attention  to 
such  complex  figures  as  Schroder's  stair  figure 
or  Necker's  cube. 

In  fluctuation,  the  changes  in  vasomotor  action 
and  respiration  are  normal  physiological  changes 
which  condition  attention  to  minimal  stimuli  and 
affect  the  periodicity  of  efficiency  as  shown  in  the 
fluctuations.  It  should  be  noted  that  such 
changes  are  not  the  ones  which  result  when  active 
control  of  a  situation  is  attempted.  Changes 
which  follow  active  control  and  attention  are  the 
result  of  attention  in  such  a  case  and  not  the 
conditioning  substratum.  Fluctuation  of  atten- 
tion is  a  most  interesting  problem  for  in  it  we 
have  attention  in  its  purest  state  and  as  close  to 
a  general  power  in  a  sensory  fleld  as  can  be 
found.  In  a  more  advanced  stage,  attention  is 
conditioned  by  acquired  ideal  and  motor  elements 
which  further  persistence,  and  guide  attention 
one  way  or  the  other.  Individual  instincts  and 
capacities  also  direct  attention  into  special  fields. 
It  might  be  of  interest  to  see  whether  or  not  per- 
sistence in  any  special  field  can  be  measured  by 
the  length  of  the  periods  of  distinctness  in  fluc- 
tuation waves,  and  by  Traube-Hering  rhythms. 

j^c)   Unity.      Since    efficiency   of   control   is 


94  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

facilitated  by  narrowing  and  specialising  a  given 
field,  unity  will  tend  to  be  selected  in  preference 
to  distribution  of  attention.  Moreover,  complete 
control  is  possible  only  when  a  given  totality  is 
presented  as  a  unitary  whole.  We  have  but  a 
single  body  with  which  to  take  an  attitude,  a 
single  pair  of  hands  with  which  to  work  and 
manipulate  an  object  or  situation.  The  visual 
field,  too,  holds  objects  together  in  an  elliptical 
form  which  may  become  further  narrowed  in 
motor  control.  Finally,  when  too  many  objects 
strive  to  hold  the  focus  of  attention,  there  results 
a  feeling  of  strain,  of  unrest,  of  dissatisfaction, 
even  of  pain.  On  this  account  there  will  be  a 
tendency  to  shut  out  such  disturbing  situations, 
and  to  seek  or  construct  more  simple  and  unified  ' 
ones.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  most  systems 
of  philosophy  seek  to  find  some  universal  prin- 
ciple, law,  ground,  etc.,  which  will  explain  the 
multiplicity  of  events.  The  tendency  to  explain 
things  by  simple  reasons,  and  to  connect  phe- 
nomena through  analogy  is  probably  due  to  the 
same  cause.  Unity  gives  ease,  rest,  and  satisfac- 
tion, and  so  is  sought  even  when  the  seeking  dis- 
torts truth. 

The  apparent  discreteness  in  the  field  of  visual 
attention  in  which  from  three  to  five  objects  seem 


THE  OBJECTIVE  ASPECT  95 

to  be  discriminated  at  a  single  glance  is  due 
probably  to  retentiveness,  development,  and  suc- 
cessive acts  of  attention  upon  memory  images. 
Young  children  are  not  able  to  grasp  as  many 
objects  at  a  single  glance  as  are  older  children, 
and  when  the  time  of  exposure  of  the  objects  is 
shortened,  fewer  are  seen  at  once.  When  an 
individual  sees  four  objects,  he  sees  not  four  indi- 
vidual objects,  but  a  group  which  is  associated 
with  'fourness.'  From  long  experience  with 
such  groups,  e,g,y  four  corners,  four  fingers,  etc., 
they  come  to  mean  'four'  to  him.  The  associa- 
tion is  one  of  words  and  meaning.  Without  such 
experience,  as  in  the  case  of  children,  apprehen- 
sion of  objects  becomes  narrowed  to  one  or  two. 
When  the  objects  are  grouped  they  are  seen  as 
a  'four'  group,  a  'five'  group,  and  the  like.  Prac- 
tice will  enable  an  individual  to  visualise  groups 
containing  a  much  larger  number  of  objects. 
In  the  case  of  auditory  fields,  the  rhythm 
probably  takes  the  place  of  the  visual  group. 
The  rhythm  is  apprehended  as  a  whole,  and  by 
experience  associated  with  'four'  or  'eight,'  etc., 
as  the  case  may  be. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  PSYCHOPHYSICAL  ASPECT  OF  } 

ATTENTION  | 

§  I.  DESCRIPTION  '  I 

1.  Ideal.  An  impression  in  itself  has  little 
lasting  power.  It  passes  into  consciousness  and 
flits  out  without  remaining  long  in  the  focus  of 
attention.  But  little  experience,  however,  is 
necessary  to  modify  the  pristine  purity  of  im- 
pressions and  to  give  them  meaning  one  way  or 
the  other.  Connections  are  made,  ideal  disposi- 
tions are  formed,  a  mental  set  is  developed,  and 
what  was  originally  a  lone  sensation  is  soon 
seized  and  held  within  the  field  of  consciousness 
by  the  mental  setting  which  has  been  acquired. 
Such  ideal  reinforcement  may  take  the  form 
of  simple  assimilation  or  of  free  association. 
Whichever  be  the  case,  the  impression  is  lifted 
into  the  focus  of  consciousness  and  held  there  by 
ideal  traces  and  dispositions. 

{a)   Fusion^   assimilation  and  complication.^ 

*See  Herbart,  Johann  Friedrich,  Sdmmt.  Werke,  herausge- 
geben  von  G.  Hartenstein,  5:21-24,  or  A  Text-Book  in  Psychology, 
Eng.  tr.  by  M.  K.  Smith,  Ch.  III.  Wundt,  W.,  Grund.  d.  Phys. 
Psych.,  Ch.  XIX,  §2. 

96 


THE  PSYCHOPHYSICAL  ASPECT       97 

Each  of  these  three  forms  of  association  deals 
with  single  moments  of  conscious  apprehension. 
The  incoming  impression  meets  with  ideal  dis- 
positions, and  together  these  form  a  single  per- 
ception, image,  or  idea.  Fusion  may  be  intensive, 
as  in  the  case  of  sounds  and  feelings,  or  extensive, 
as  in  the  case  of  visual  and  tactile  impressions. 
In  the  former  case  a  number  of  separate  ele- 
ments, as  fundamental  and  overtones,  are  com- 
bined into  a  single  complex  called  a  tone.  In 
the  latter  case  visual  elements  as  such,  and  motor 
elements  are  combined  to  give  perceptions  of 
distance,  space  and  the  like. 

In  assimilation,  revived  elements  reinforce  an 
impression,  round  it  out,  and  give  it  meaning. 
A  few  strokes,  for  example,  will  outline  the 
features  of  a  known  personage,  while  the  begin- 
ning of  a  familiar  word  is  usually  all  that  is 
necessary  to  bring  the  whole  to  mind.  The  nu- 
merous proof  reader's  errors  are  an  indication 
of  such  assimilation.  Fluctuation  of  the  more 
complex  figures  as  the  cube  or  the  staircase  may 
also  be  controlled  in  part  by  it. 

Complication  is  a  loose  form  of  simultaneous 
association  and  may  at  times  pass  over  into  free 
association.  Thus,  attention  to  a  piece  of  silk 
may  excite  the  feel  of  it,  and  the  sight  of  water 

7 


98  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

may  revive  the  impression  of  wetness.  A  view 
of  a  knife,  too,  may  rouse  tendencies  to  use  it, 
or  the  thought  of  some  action  may  call  up  ten-: 
dencies  to  motor  control.  Such  associations  may 
be  concomitant  with  the  impression  or  idea.  If 
attention  persists,  such  impressions  or  ideas  may 
unroll  into  a  train  of  thought  or  a  series  of 
reactions. 

(&)  Free  revival,  A  situation  may  excite 
an  image,  idea,  or  a  series  of  ideas.  Each  in 
turn  will  reinforce  aspects  of  the  situation  in  the 
focus  of  attention  and  will  keep  it  in  the  field 
of  clearness  and  distinctness.  The  field  in  the 
focus  of  control  may  rouse  images  of  previous 
events  connected  with  it,  or  of  surroundings  in 
which  it  was  experienced.  It  may  revive  an 
ideal  system  to  which  it  belongs,  or  ideas  of  other 
situations  to  which  it  is  a  means,  and  which  it 
may  help  to  realise.  As  idea  after  idea  rises  and 
reinforces  aspects  of  the  situation  under  con- 
trol, attention  to  the  situation  in  question  per- 
sists. The  more  ideal  connections  which  can  be 
made,  the  longer  will  attention  persist.  Thus, 
one  may  take  a  time-table  and  examine  it  for  a 
considerable  time.  The  words  and  figures  in 
themselves  can  not  hold  the  attention.  But  as 
they  are  connected  with  persons,  events,  places. 


THE  PSYCHOPHYSICAL  ASPECT        99 

memory  images,  and  too  often  with  the  products 
of  the  imagination,  they  hold  the  centre  of  the 
attention  field. 

Considerable  laboratory  work  has  been  done 
for  the  purpose  of  finding  the  forms  of  asso- 
ciation which  are  possible  in  such  ideal  revival. 
It  is  found  that  a  situation  tends  to  revive  an 
idea  or  an  image  of  another  situation  with  which 
it  coexisted,  or  with  which  it  is  connected  by 
some  relation  or  series  of  relations.  The  former 
gives  what  is  called  synchronous  association,  or 
association  by  contiguity  in  time  or  place,  the 
latter  gives  what  is  called  association  by  simi- 
larity, cause  and  effect,  purpose,  design,  or  what 
not.  Before  giving  a  logical  classification  of 
situations  which  are  represented  by  the  revived 
images  and  ideas  which  act  as  reinforcing  agents, 
it  is  necessary  for  one  clearly  to  set  forth  what 
such  a  classification  means.  The  terms  'con- 
tiguity,' 'similarity,'  'purpose,'  etc.,  refer  not  to 
the  ideas  or  images,  but  to  the  given  situation, 
and  the  other  situations  with  which  it  is  or  was 
connected  in  some  way.  Thus,  if  one  attends  to 
a  book,  and  recalls  bygone  days  when  friends 
and  companions  were  near  by,  the  contiguity  of 
such  situations  is  in  question,  and  not  the  con- 
tiguity of  the  ideas  or  images.     So,  too,  if  one 


100  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

recalls  a  book  like  the  one  attended  to,  the  image 
refers  to  a  similar  book.  The  similarity  is  a  rela- 
tion existing  between  the  objects  and  not  between 
the  ideas.  The  reason  for  such  revival  will  be 
explained  in  a  following  section.  Somewhat  to 
anticipate,  it  may  be  noted  that  any  contiguity  or 
continuity  of  cerebral  elements  which  underlies 
the  ideal  succession  is  very  different  from  the 
contiguity  of  the  situations  when  first  experi- 
enced. 

Keeping  in  mind  that  the  classification  which 
is  given  below  refers  to  forms  of  association,  and 
to  relations  which  are  possible  between  situations, 
one  may  have  any  of  the  following : 

I.  OF  THINGS 

1.  Quantitative 
(a)  Time  (b)  Space 

Succession  Contiguity 

Duration  Distance 

Simultaneity  Direction 

2.  Qualitative 
Substance  and  Attribute 

Whole  and  Part 

Genus  and  Species 

3.  Formal 
Causality  Contrast 

Similarity  Purpose  or  Design 

Signification  or  Meaning 


II.  OF  PERSONS 

2.  Equal                     3. 

Subordinate 

Ruler-ruler 

Subject 

Sub  j  ect-sub  j  ect 

Employee 

Worker-worker 

Worker 

Parent-parent 

Child 

Etc. 

Etc.^ 

THE  PSYCHOPHYSICAL  ASPECT      101 


1.  Superior 
Ruler 
Employer 
Supervisor 

_^         Parent 

■I       Etc. 

H'  (c)  Deliberative.  When  a  situation  excites 
a  number  of  attitudes  which  prevent  immediate 
control,  the  individual  selects  various  aspects  of 
the  situation  in  question,  thinks  them  over,  refers 
to  past  experiences,  to  authority,  etc.,  weighs 
evidence,  and  either  decides  one  way  or  the  other, 
or  leaves  the  question  unsettled.  From  the  psy- 
chological point  of  view  we  say  that  there  exists 
a  conflict  of  ideas  and  motives,  that  there  is 
present  deliberation  and  choice.  All  the  while 
that  deliberation  is  going  on,  it  is  evident  that 
the  situation  in  question  persists  in  the  centre 

^  Some  of  the  above  classification  has  been  suggested  by 
Professor  J.  E.  Lough,  of  New  York  University.  See  also 
Thorndike,  E.  L.,  'Animal  Intelligence,'  Psych.  Rev.,  Mon.  Sup., 
4:65-109.  For  a  number  of  other  classifications  see  Trautscholdt, 
M.,  *Experimentelle  Untersuchungen  fiber  die  Association  der 
Vorstellungen,'  Phil.  Stud.,  1.  Wundt,  W.,  Grund.,  3:Ch.  XIX. 
Cattell,  J.  McKeen,  and  Bryant,  S.,  'Mental  Association  Investi- 
gated by  Experiment,'  Mind,  14.  Calkins,  M.  W.,  'Association,  An 
Essay  Analytic  and  Experimental,'  Psych.  Bev.,  Mon.  Sup.,  2. 
Claparfede,  E.,  L' Association  des  Id^es.  A  summary  of  classifica- 
tions will  be  found  in  Arnold,  F.,  'The  Psychology  of  Association,' 
Arch,  of  Phil,  Psych,  and  Sci.  Meth.,  3. 


102  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

of  control.  An  individual  who  must  pay  the 
instalment  on  a  mortgage  and  who  is  looking 
for  means  to  collect  the  necessary  money,  is  an 
example  in  point. 

When  conflict  in  deliberation  is  strong,  and 
attention  is  more  or  less  intense,  feehngs  of 
strain  arise.  These  feelings  are  felt  especially 
about  the  head  and  eyes.  With  older  psycholo- 
gists this  is  sometimes  mistaken  as  a  sign  of 
some  general  activity  of  attention  or  will  which 
is  supposed  to  stand  over  and  above  the  process 
directing  selection  and  choice.  That  such  strain 
is  due  to  peripheral  stresses  is  shown  by  the  fol- 
lowing facts: 

(1)  Feeling  of  effort  arises  when  there  is 
conflict  in  deliberation,  or  when,  in  the  process 
of  attempted  control,  accommodation  is  inade- 
quate, Le.^  when  attention  is  not  wholly  effective. 
When  attention  is  more  effective,  such  feelings 
of  strain  tend  to  disappear.  It  is  the  problem 
which  baffles,  the  situation  which  is  troublesome, 
the  flux  of  impossible  conditions,  etc.,  which  cause 
worry  and  strain. 

(2)  If  an  individual  strains  his  right  arm  in 
attempting  to  raise  an  object,  he  will  feel  a 
strain  on  the  right  side  of  his  head.  This  would 
not  be  the  case  if  the  feeling  of  strain  depended 


THE  PSYCHOPHYSICAL  ASPECT      103 

upon  psychophysical  conditions.    In  such  a  case, 
they  would  be  felt  on  the  left  side.^ 

(3)  Increase  in  the  intensity  of  attention  is 
not  always  accompanied  by  more  intense  feelings 
of  strain  and  effort.  When  one  is  beginning  a 
task,  or  is  attempting  something  new,  or  is  tak- 
ing up  work  long  since  forgotten,  the  preliminary 
adjustments  excite  more  intense  feelings  of 
strain  than  later  control.  As  control  becomes 
more  effective,  and  as  attention  increases  in  ef- 
ficiency, feelings  of  effort  tend  to  become  less. 

(4)  One  can  produce  the  feeling  of  strain 
artificially.  If  one  contracts  the  forehead  in- 
tensely for  a  time,  makes  the  scalp  tense  about 
the  frontal  region,  and  if  possible  draws  the  ears 
back,  a  feeling  of  strain  will  be  noticed  much  like 
feelings  of  strain  in  mental  deliberation.  After 
concentrated  mental  work,  the  feeling  of  strain 
and  incipient  fatigue  can  be  aggravated  by  these 
means.  In  all  this,  what  is  denied  is  not  the  ex- 
istence of  any  psychophysical  activity,  but  only 
its  appearance,  as  such,  in  the  realm  of  sensation. 
In  referring  to  attention  as  selecting,  discrimi- 
nating, and  the  like,  what  one  means  is  not  some 
special  activity,  but  the  activity  of  the  individual 
in  attempting  fuller  control.    His  motor  adjust- 

' Munsterberg,  H.,  Die  Willenshandlung,  73. 


104  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

ments  and  innervations,  his  ideas  and  images 
which  reinforce  incoming  sensations,  these,  taken 
together,  result  in  discrimination  and  produce 
clearness  and  distinctness. 

2.  Cerebral.  In  outlining  the  cerebral  con- 
comitants of  mental  activity,  one  must  consider 
the  ideal  elements  in  connection  with  the  motor. 
The  functional  unit  is  not  sensory  alone,  but 
sensorimotor.  In  dealing  with  the  psychological 
aspect,  one  may  consider  ideal  and  sensory  ele- 
ments apart  from  motor  for  purposes  of  discus- 
sion, but  in  treating  the  nervous  substratum,  the 
sensorimotor  unit  is  best  described  by  present- 
ing it  as  it  is,  a  connected  whole. 

(a)  Reflex.  The  simplest  sensorimotor  arc 
is  the  reflex  arc.  A  sensory  stimulus  is  conducted 
by  means  of  a  sensory  neuron  to  the  posterior  \ 
root  of  the  spinal  column,  transferred  to  the 
anterior  horn,  and  then  is  carried  by  means  of 
one  or  more  motor  neurones  to  a  muscle.  This 
is  the  process  which  takes  place  at  the  level  of 
the  spinal  column.  The  incoming  stimulation 
proceeds  by  way  of  what  are  called  afferent 
nerve  fibres,  the  outgoing  by  way  of  efferent 
nerve  fibres.  Such  an  arc  is  made  somewhat 
more  complex  by  collateral  fibres  which  branch 


THE  PSYCHOPHYSIOAL  ASPECT      105 


out  from  the  nerves  and  connect  the  different 
cells.  The  sensory  fibres  which  enter  the  pos- 
terior roots  may  pass  upwards  and  give  off  a 
number  of  collaterals,  or  they  may  connect  with 
intermediate  cells  which  in  turn  are  connected 
with  motor  neurones.  The  process,  however,  is 
always  a  sensorimotor  one. 


Fia.   X.      Reflex    arc.      S,    sensory;    M,    motor. 

Facilitation  of  motor  reaction  occurs  when  two 
or  more  sensory  stimulations  discharge  into  the 
same  motor  system.  Inhibition  or  arrest  occurs 
when  two  conflicting  motor  systems  are  simul- 
taneously excited.  The  successful  system  in  all 
probability  then  drains  or  diverts  the  energy  ex- 
cited by  the  stimulus  which  tended  to  excite  the 
inhibited  motor  response.     If,  for  example,  sa 


106  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

and  sbj  two  sensory  stimuli,  excite  ma  and  mbj 
two  motor  nervous  systems,  mb  may  succeed  in 
draining  the  energy  excited  in  ma  for  its  own 
use.  This  is  a  probable  explanation  of  physio- 
logical inhibition  or  arrest.^  Inhibition  of  spinal 
response  may  also  be  effected  by  cerebral  activ- 
ity. Paths  already  made  by  previous  experiences 
in  the  cerebrum  lead  the  energy  generated  by  the 
stimulus  into  higher  levels,  and  so  change  the 
nature  of  the  response. 

Skeletal  arcs  are  connected  with  visceral  arcs. 
The  latter  control  respiration,  heart-beat,  dila- 
tion of  arteries,  etc.  Reflex  processes,  besides 
terminating  in  an  external  motor  response,  may 
effect  organic  changes,  as,  changes  in  respiration, 
constriction  of  arteries,  variation  in  heart-beat, 
and  the  like.  Connections  in  the  spinal  cord 
between  skeletal  and  visceral  sensorimotor  arcs 
are  made  by  means  of  collateral  fibres.  In  ad- 
dition to  connecting  with  motor  nerve  fibres,  the 
sensory  excitation  may  pass  upwards  and  leave  a 
trace  in  the  cerebrum.  The  motor  response  may 
likewise  be  reflected  back  to  a  cerebral  centre. 
Further  connection  is  then  made  between  the 
motor  and  sensory  centres.  It  is  this  which  gives 
a  basis  for  higher,  cerebral  development. 

*See  McDougall,  W.,  Physiological  Psychology,  37. 


THE  PSYCHOPHYSICAL  ASPECT      107 

I 


Fig.  XI.  Sensimotor  unit. 
(After  McDougal,  Mind, 
N.    S.,    12,  486.) 


Sensorimotor  arcs  of  the  spinal  level,  in  gen- 
eral, are  characterised  by  ( 1 )  the  relatively  great 
constancy  and  regularity  of  their  response  to 
sensory  stimuli,  (2)  their  general  vagueness  and 
indistinctness  in  the  field  of  consciousness,  (3) 
their  great  freedom  from  interference  or  arrest 
by  the  activity  of  higher  levels,  and  in  many 
instances  of  their  own  level,  and  (4)  their  de- 
pendence upon  sensory  stimulation.^ 

(6)   Cerebral.  An  important  point  to  be  noted 

*See  McDougall,  W.,  *The  Physiological  Factors  of  the  Atten- 
tion Process,'  Mind,  11:341. 


108  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

in  the  structure  of  higher  cerebral  levels  is  that 
the  single  cells  are  essentially  of  the  same  nature 
as  those  of  the  spinal  level,  that  is,  that  they 
are  sensorimotor. 

Every  part  of  the  cortex  receives  incoming  impulses 
and  gives  rise  to  outgoing  impulses.  Every  part  of  the 
cortex  is,  therefore,  both  a  termination  of  some  afferent 
path  and  the  beginning  of  some  efferent  path;  it  is,  in 
other  words,  a  reflex  arc  of  a  greater  or  less  degree  of 
complexity.  We  may  suppose  that  every  efferent  dis- 
charge from  any  part  of  the  cortex  is  occasioned  by 
afferent  impressions  reaching  that  point  from  some  other 
part  of  the  nervous  system.  Whether  or  not  there  is 
such  a  thing  as  spontaneous  mental  activity  cannot  be 
determined  by  physiology,  but  on  the  anatomical  side  at 
least,  all  the  structures  exhibit  connections  that  fit  them 
for  reflex  stimulation,  and  many  of  our  apparently 
spontaneous  acts  must  be  of  this  character.® 

A  second  important  feature  in  the  structure 
of  the  cerebral  level  is  the  complexity  and  rich- 
ness of  the  connections  of  the  neurones. 

This  anatomical  fact  would  indicate  that  the  greater 
mental  activity  in  the  higher  animals  is  dependent,  in 
part,  upon  the  richer  interconnection  of  the  nerve  cells, 
or,  expressed  physiologically,  our  mental  processes  are 
characterised  by  their  more  numerous  and  complex  asso- 
ciations.   A  visual  or  auditory  stimulus  that,  in  the  frog 

•  HoweU,  W.  H.,  Phys.,  111. 


THE  PSYCHOPHYSICAL  ASPECT      109 

for  instance,  may  call  forth  a  comparatively  simple 
motor  response,  may  in  man,  on  account  of  the  numerous 
associations  with  the  memory  records  of  the  past  experi- 
ences, lead  to  psychical  and  motor  responses  of  a  much 
more  intricate  and  indirect  character  J 

In  such  a  case,  impressions  start  nervous  im- 
pulses which  instead  of  passing  out  immediately 
by  way  of  the  sj^inal  cord,  enter  the  cerebral  loop 
and  receive  further  direction  there.  The  im- 
pulse proceeds  then  in  the  following  order:  (1) 
peripheral  sense  organ,  (2)  afferent  nerve  fibre, 
(3)  spinal  sensory  cell,  (4)  afferent  tract,  (5) 
cortical  sensory  cell,  (6)  commissural  fibre,  (7) 
cortical  motor  cell,  (8)  efferent  tract,  (9)  spinal 
motor  cell,  (10)  efferent  nerve  fibre,  and  (11) 
muscle  or  peripheral  end  organ.^ 

The  sensorimotor  portion  of  the  cerebrum  con- 
sists of  a  number  of  more  or  less  definitely  local- 
ised centres.  Among  these  are  (1)  the  body 
sense  area,  (2)  the  visual  centre,  (3)  the  auditory 
centre,  (4)  the  gustatory  centre,  (5)  the  speech 
centre,  and  (6)  the  motor  area.  Arcs  of  the 
cerebral  level  are  characterised  by  (1)  a  less 
stable  and  fixed  organisation,  i.e.,  by  a  great 
variability  in  the  direction  of  nervous  discharge, 

'Ibid.,  178-179. 

•Waller,  A.  D.,  An  Int.  to  Hum.  Phys.,  Ch.  VIII. 


no  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

(2)  the  increase  in  complexity  and  richness  of 
interconnections,  (3)  the  clearness  and  distinct- 
ness of  the  situations  which  correspond  with  their 
activity,  (4)  a  general  tendency  of  the  activity 
of  any  system  to  inhibit  the  activity  of  any  other 
system,  and  (5)  their  relative  freedom  from 
immediate  sensory  guidance. 

(c)  Frontal,  Motor  and  sensory  areas  occupy 
the  smaller  portion  of  the  cerebrum.  The  larger 
frontal  region  is  occupied  by  what  are  now  fairly 
well  established  as  association  areas. 

The  association  areas  may  be  regarded  as  the  regions 
in  which  the  different  sense  impressions  are  synthesised 
into  complex  perceptions  or  concepts.  The  foundations 
of  all  knowledge  are  to  be  found  in  the  sensations 
aroused  through  the  various  sense  organs ;  through  these 
avenues  alone  can  our  consciousness  come  into  relation 
with  the  external  or  the  internal  (somatic)  world,  and  the^ 
union  of  these  sense  impressions  is  the  general  function 
of  the  association  areas.  This  function  of  the  associa- 
tion areas  is  indicated  by  the  anatomical  fact  that  they 
are  connected  with  the  various  sense  centres  by  tracts  of 
association  fibres.  .  .  . 

Here,  as  elsewhere  in  the  nervous  system,  it  may  be 
supposed  that  the  efficiency  of  the  nervous  machinery  is 
conditioned  partly  by  the  completeness  and  character  of 
training,  but  largely  also  by  the  inborn  character  of  the 
machinery  Itself.  The  very  marked  differences  among 
intelligent  and  cultivated  persons — for  instance,  in  the 


THE  PSYCHOPHYSICAL  ASPECT      111 

matter  of  musical  memory  and  the  power  of  appreciating 
and  reproducing  musical  harmonies — cannot  be  attrib- 
uted to  differences  of  training  alone.  The  gifted  per- 
son in  this  respect  is  one  who  is  born  with  a  certain 
portion  of  his  brain  more  highly  organised  than  that  of 
his  fellow-men.  .  .  .  With  our  ideas  of  the  organisa- 
tion of  the  brain  cortex,  and  our  knowledge  that  differ- 
ent parts  of  this  cortex  give  different  reactions  in 
consciousness,  it  seems  to  follow  that  special  talents  are 
due  to  differences  in  organisation  of  special  parts  of  the 
cortex.® 

§  II.  ILLUSTRATION 

1.  Ideal,  (a)  Fusion,  assimilation^  compli- 
cation. 

(1)   Literary. 

Under  the  pentacle  I  held  the  little  boy,  my  workman. 
Now  the  necromancer  began  to  utter  those  awful  invoca- 
tions, calling  by  name  on  multitudes  of  demons  who  are 
captains  of  their  legions.  .  .  .  The  boy,  who  was  be- 
neath the  pentacle,  shrieked  out  in  terror  that  a  million 
of  the  fiercest  men  were  swarming  round  and  threatened 
us.  He  said,  moreover,  that  four  huge  giants  had  ap- 
peared, and  were  striving  to  force  their  way  inside  the 
circle. — I  said  to  him:  "These  creatures  are  all  inferior 
to  us,  and  what  you  see  is  only  smoke  and  shadow;  so 
then  raise  your  eyes." — Memoirs  of  Benvenuto  Cellini^ 
Book  First,  LXIV. 

•  Howell,  W.  H.,  Phy8.y  210-211. 


112  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

Errata  in  Villa,  G.,  Contemporary  Psychology,  xv. 

For  Ralier  read  Rabier. 

For  Garofolo  read  Garofalo. 

For  Boratelli  read  Bonatelli. 

For  La  coscienza  nelF  uomo  read  La  coscienza  nel 
sonno. 

For  Guiguo  read  Giugno. 

For  particular  choice  read  particular  chain. 

For  1878  read  1898. 

Explain  these  errors  by  assimilation,  etc.  What  was 
the  sense  core.?  What  ideal  elements  were  revived.'^  What 
elements  should  have  been  revived.? 

{2)  Experimental. 

Find  the  concealed  figures  in  the  'puzzle  pictures.* 
How  do  they  appear  after  they  have  once  been  found.? 
Why  do  they  appear  so?^® 

Strike  a  chord  on  the  piano.  Strike  one  of  the  single 
tones.  Strike  the  chord  again  and  look  for  the  single 
tone.  What  is  the  result .?  How  does  it  sound  relative  to 
the  others.? 

Why  does  the  following  illustration  represent  a  sol-' 
dier  entering  an  inn  with  his  dog?  What  are  thej 
sensory  elements?    What  are  the  ideal  factors ?^^ 


L 


Fig.    XII 
"Titchener,  E.  B.,  Exp.  Psych.,  l:Pt.  I,  110. 
"DeGarmo,  Charles,  The  Essentials  of  Method,  25. 


THE  PSYCHOPHYSICAL  ASPECT      113 
(j)  Schematic. 


R 
Fia.   XIII.      I,    impression, 
revived   disposition. 


I 


R, 


(b)  Free  association. 
(1)   Literary, 

Wee,  modest,  crimson-tipped  flow'r, 
Thou's  met  me  in  an  evil  hour; 
For  I  maun  crush  amang  the  stoure 

Thy  slender  stem: 
To  spare  thee  now  is  past  my  pow'r 

Thou  bonnie  gem. 

Cauld  blew  the  bitter-biting  north 
Upon  thy  early,  humble  birth; 
Yet  cheerfully  thou  glinted  forth 

Amid  the  storm. 
Scarce  rear'd  above  the  parent-earth 

Thy  tender  form. 

Such  fate  to  suffering  Worth  is  giv'n, 

Who  long  with  wants  and  woes  has   striv'n, 

By  human  pride  or  cunning  driv'n 

To  mis'ry's  brink: 
Till,  wrench'd  of  ev'ry  stay  but  Heav'n, 

He,  ruin'd,  sink ! 

To  a  Mountain  Daisy,  Bums. 


114  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

(2)  Eccperimental. 

Recall  fully  what  you  did  with  the  book  you  read 
before  this  one.     The  centre  of  attention  is  'book.' 

Give  three  images,  or  ideas,  or  series  of  images  or 
ideas  which  the  following  words  recall :  light,  moneys  hoy, 
paper,  country. 

Try  to  recall  five  ideas  or  images. 

Classify  your  results  according  to  the  logical  scheme 
in  the  preceding  section.  Remember  that  the  words 
recalled  represent  objects  or  situations  and  it  is  the  situ- 
ations which  are  to  be  classified  according  to  the  scheme 
outlined. 

Of  the  following,  give  the  name  of  (1)  a  part,  (2) 
an  attribute,  (3)  a  use,  (4)  an  object  like  it,  and  (5) 
an  object  sometimes  seen  next  to  or  near  it:  hook,  knife, 
pen,  dog,  tree. 

How  does  this  series  of  associations  differ  from  the 
one  above.?  What  ideal  reinforcement  do  these  centres 
of  attention  receive.? 

What  would  you  do  if  you  received  $5,000  on  condi- 
tion that  you  spend  half  of  it  in  a  reasonable  manner 
within  one  day.?  The  idea  of  the  money  is  the  centre  of 
attention.    What  ideal  elements  keep  it  there.? 


is)  Schematic, 


SYCHOPHYSICAL  ASPECT      115 
B 


Pig.  XIV.     I,   impression.     R,   re- 
vived disposition,   A,   B,   C,   etc., 

associations. 

\c)  Deliberative, 
(1)  Literary. 

He's  here  in  double  trust ; 
First,  as  I  am  his  kinsman  and  his  subject, 
Strong  both  against  the  deed ;  then,  as  his  host. 
Who  should  against  his  murderer  shut  the  door. 
Not  bear  the  knife  myself.    Besides,  this  Duncan 
Hath  borne  his  faculties  so  meek,  hath  been 
So  clear  in  his  great  office,  that  his  virtues 
Will  plead  like  angels  trumpet-tongued  against 
The  deep  damnation  of  his  taking-ofF ; 
And  pity,  like  a  naked  new-born  babe. 
Striding  the  blast,  or  heaven's  cherubim  horsed 
Upon  the  sightless  couriers  of  the  air. 
Shall  blow  the  horrid  deed  in  every  eye. 
That  tears  shall  drown  the  wind. 

Macbeth,  l:vii. 


116  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

When  he  found  I  would  leave  him,  he  took  care  to 
prevent  my  getting  employment  in  any  other  printing- 
house  of  the  town,  by  going  round  and  speaking  to 
every  master,  who  accordingly  refus'd  to  give  me  work. 
I  then  thought  of  going  to  New  York,  as  the  nearest 
place  where  there  was  a  printer;  and  I  was  rather  in- 
clin'd  to  leave  Boston  when  I  reflected  that  I  had  already 
made  myself  a  little  obnoxious  to  the  governing  party, 
and,  from  the  arbitrary  proceedings  of  the  Assembly  in 
my  brother's  case,  it  was  likely  I  might,  if  I  stay'd,  soon 
to  bring  myself  into  scrapes ;  and  farther,  that  my  indis- 
crete disputations  about  religion  began  to  make  me 
pointed  at  with  horror  by  good  people  as  an  infidel  or 
atheist. — Franklin,  Autobiography, 

{2)  Eooperimental. 

Which  is  better,  to  work  hard  during  youth,  so  that 
enjoyment  and  ease  may  come  in  later  life,  or  to  have  a 
modicum  of  enjoyment  and  ease  during  youth,  with  the 
possibility  of  the  same  during  old  age? 

If  you  come  to  any  conclusion,  give  reasons  for  your 
conclusion.  Upon  what  are  they  based  ?  Is  your  reason- 
ing more  the  result  of  personal  attitude,  or  more  the 
result  of  observation  on  the  experience  of  others?  Has 
your  reading  influenced  your  train  of  thought  ? 

Why  are  you  studying  or  reading  psychology,  or 
Greek,  or  English?  What  was  your  aim  at  first?  What 
means  other  than  study  did  you  have  in  mind  for  reach- 
ing your  aim?  When  you  attended  to  the  means,  Le.^ 
when  you  were  studying  on  a  hot  night  or  on  a  pleasant 
day,  was  the  idea  of  the  end  always  in  view?    Were  there 


THE  PSYCHOPHYSICAL  ASPECT      117 

any  conflicting  ends,  or  situations?  When  does  the  end 
rise  to  the  focus  of  consciousness?  What  effect  has  it  on 
attention  to  the  means? 

(j)   Schematic, 


Pig.  XV.  I,  impression.  R,  re- 
vived disposition.  A,  B,  con- 
flicting   associations. 


118  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

2.  Cerebral. 


K/l  M      M       M 


Fig.  XVI.  S,  sense  impression.  M,  motor  response. 
A,  B,  C,  higher  levels.  (After  McDougall,  W.,  Mindt 
N.  S.,  11:333.) 


i 


THE  PSYCHOPHYSICAL  ASPECT      119 
§  III.  DEVELOPMENT 

1.  Ideal.  The  general  order  of  development 
of  the  ideal  dispositions  which  reinforce  an  im- 
pression or  idea  is  from  (l)  impression  to  mem- 
ory, (2)  memory  to  ideal  construction,  and  (3) 
ideal  construction  to  deliberation  and  choice. 
The  special  direction  given  to  such  development 
is  due  in  part  to  experience  and  training,  in  part 
to  natural  capacity  and  talent.  Environment 
and  heredity  are  two  factors  which  condition 
specialisation  and  efficiency.  The  general  order 
of  progression,  however,  is  as  indicated  above. 

When  an  impression  alone  is  able  to  control 
attention,  we  have  primitive  or  instinctive  atten- 
tion. When  attention  in  part  is  sustained  by  a 
series  of  ideas  or  images  we  have  assimilative  or 
apperceptive  attention.  When  conflict,  delibera- 
tion and  choice  are  factors  which  keep  a  situa- 
tion in  the  centre  of  attention,  or  when  means  are 
attended  to  because  they  are  bound  with  an  end, 
we  have  voluntary  or  selective  attention.  Other 
terms  which  are  used  are,  passive  and  active, 
primary  and  secondary,  involuntary  and  volun- 
tary, etc.  These  aspects,  be  it  noted,  constitute 
only  a  part  of  the  attentive  process.  The  other 
and  equally  important  part  is  the  motor  control. 

(a)  Primitive  or  instinctive.     In  its  earliest 


120  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

stages,  attention  is  instinctive.  A  sudden  noise, 
a  differing  or  changing  impression,  or  one  pleas- 
urable or  painful,  will  stimulate  reaction,  will, 
in  general,  impel  consciousness  towards  it.  An 
infant,  at  times,  seems  to  be  controlled  almost 
wholly  by  external  impressions.  Test  any  very 
young  child,  by  moving  the  finger  before  it,  or 
by  tapping,  or  by  holding  a  colored  stick  or  ball 
within  its  grasp,  and  note  the  result. 

(b)  Assimilative  or  apperceptive.  Such  im- 
pressions leave  traces  which  on  the  psychophysi- 
cal side  are  called  dispositions  or  memories.  When 
some  basis  of  experience  has  been  constructed, 
impressions  no  longer  pass  through  lower  levels, 
but  are  guided  and  controlled  in  part  by  the 
activity  of  higher  levels.  Selection  by  means  of 
ideal  reinforcement  is  now  possible.  Of  the  mul- 
titude of  impressions  which  flock  in  through  the 
different  sense  organs,  some  persist  in  the  centre 
of  consciousness  to  the  exclusion  of  other  impres- 
sions. Some  impressions  have  a  meaning  to  the 
individual  because  of  the  experiences  through 
which  he  has  gone.  Associations  are  excited, 
ideal  dispositions  are  aroused,  and  these  enable 
the  impression,  which  is  facilitated,  to  remain 
longer  in  the  centre  of  greatest  clearness  and 
distinctness.     A  selection  from  an  opera  which 


|pi:  THE  PSYCHOPHYSICAL  ASPECT      121 

has  been  sung  at  school,  which  has  been  heard 
from  the  street  hand-organs,  etc.,  stands  out  with 
special  distinctness  when  heard  at  legitimate 
opera.  From  an  individual  point  of  view,  con- 
scious selection  is  in  part  nothing  more  than 
specialised  ideal  reinforcement  of  impressions 
which  has  been  made  possible  through  previous 
experience. 

(c)  Secondary  or  voluntary.  In  the  course 
of  experience,  some  situations  yield  pleasure, 
ease,  satisfaction,  quiescence,  and  a  general  atti- 
tude favorable  towards  their  control.  When 
such  situations  are  not  present,  only  traces  re- 
main in  the  form  of  memories,  ideas,  plans,  and 
the  like.  Attempts  to  bring  back  such  or  similar 
situations,  or  to  make  them  more  stable,  or  to 
reconstruct  them,  impel  attention  both  to  the 
situation  in  question,  and  to  means  by  which  it 
may  be  realised.  The  situation  is  not  present,  or, 
if  present,  is  not  fixed.  Possibilities  of  its  real- 
isation or  fixation  excite  the  idea  of  means  which 
may  bridge  the  gap  between  the  future  and  the 
present.  An  attempt  is  made  to  direct  present 
I  control  and  attention  in  such  a  way  that  thought 
and  action  will  lead  to  what  is  desired.  Delibera- 
tion and  choice  in  such  a  case  are  due  to  the  num- 
ber of  means  which  may  be  possible.    Attention 


122  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

to  the  situation  persists  in  part  because  of  desires 
and  anticipations  of  pleasure,  in  part  to  the  series 
of  ideas  which  arise  out  of  the  end  to  be  sought. 
Such  ideas  are  evolved  out  of  the  end  to  be 
realised,  and  out  of  the  situation  under  immedi- 
ate control.  They  serve  to  lead  the  individual 
from  the  present  to  that  which  is  to  be  attained. 
A  child,  for  example,  who  covets  a  toy,  may  plan 
to  get  it  by  saving  his  money,  by  coaxing  his 
mother  to  get  it,  by  making  it  himself,  by  ex- 
changing something  else  for  it,  by  taking  it  out- 
right, and  the  like.  In  older  persons,  the  means 
become  more  complicated.  Sometimes  years 
intervene  between  the  beginning  of  attention  to 
some  means,  and  final  realisation  of  the  end. 

The  means  which  lead  to  the  end  may  be 
attractive  or  repelling.  In  either  case  they  are 
secondary  and  of  themselves  might  not  persist 
in  the  centre  of  attention.  Attention  to  them 
persists  because  of  the  connections  which  they 
have  with  the  situation  which  is  to  be  realised.  It 
is  this  characteristic  which  leads  one  to  give  to 
attention  the  name  of  voluntary,  secondary,  or 
acquired.  Much  of  the  work  of  the  world  is 
done  because  of  such  secondary  attention.  In 
fact,  most  of  the  stability  and  persistence  of 
work  is  due  to  voluntary  attention.     No  doubt 


THE  PSYCHOPHYSICAL  ASPECT      123 

mucH  of  the  work  may  be  able  to  hold  attention 
for  a  time  in  itself,  but  irregularity  and  lapses 
are  prevented  because  of  the  connection  of  such 
work  with  an  end  which  is  to  be  realised.  An 
individual  may,  no  doubt,  like  to  sit  behind  his 
desk  and  do  his  work.  But  the  flesh  is  weak,  and 
at  times,  external  stimulation,  temptations,  a 
pleasant  day,  alluring  company,  temporary  indis- 
position, and  the  like  would  probably  overcome 
the  attractiveness  of  the  work  itself,  were  it  not 
for  the  end  to  which  the  work  leads,  and  which 
would  fail  of  realisation  if  lapses  crept  in. 

Schematically  the  process  in  attention  may  be 
represented  somewhat  as  follows:  A  may  repre- 
sent an  idea  or  image  of  the  situation  which  is  to 
be  realised,  as,  a  check,  a  pleasant  time  in  the 
country,  etc.,  and  a,  bj  c,  dj  e,  etc.,  the  means 
which  lead  to  A,  as  work,  attention  to  a  book, 
deprivation  of  temporary  pleasures,  and  the  like. 
If  the  desire  for  A  is  strong  enough,  attention 
to  a,  bj  c,  etc.,  will  persist  because  of  their  asso- 
ciation with  A,  The  means,  a,  b,  c,  etc.,  may  or 
may  not  be  pleasurable.  They  may  hold  atten- 
tion simply  because  they  lead  to  a  satisfying  or 
pleasurable  situation.  Should  they  develop  asso- 
ciations of  their  own  they  might  then  hold  atten- 
tion in  themselves.     Such  attention  would  then 


124  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

be  assimilative  or  apperceptive  as  above  de- 
scribed. One  who  reads  history  or  psychology 
at  first  for  the  purpose  of  passing  an  examina- 
tion, may  in  time  come  to  like  it  for  its  own  sake. 

Deliberation  is  usually  necessary  when  two 
conflicting  ends  strive  to  hold  the  focus  of  con-  | 
sciousness,  or  when  the  proper  means  are  to  be 
selected  for  the  solution  of  a  problem,  or  for 
effective  guidance  to  the  end  in  view.  In  such 
a  process  ideal  series  are  referred  back  to  the 
situation  in  question,  tested,  applied,  connected 
with  further  associations,  referred  again  to  the 
situation  in  the  focus  of  attention,  etc.,  and  then 
finally  accepted  or  rejected.  The  individual  who 
desires  to  go  to  the  country  may  inquire,  visit 
different  places,  seek  means  of  travel,  arrange 
money  matters,  check  himself  here  or  there  to 
ensure  effective  control,  and  so  on.  The  process 
is  one  with  which  most  are  familiar. 

On  the  ideal  side  the  general  order  of  devel- 
opment is  somewhat  as  follows : 

(1)  Instinctive  reaction  to  difference,  change, 
or  pleasure-pain. 

(2)  Attention  reinforced  by  some  form  of 
association.  i 

(3)  Attention  to  agreeable  means  which  lead 
to  some  situation  not  far  distant. 


THE  PSYCHOPHYSICAL  ASPECT      125 

(4)  Attention  to  agreeable  means  which  lead 
some  situation  far  distant. 

(5)  Attention  to  disagreeable  means  which 
jad  to  a  situation  soon  to  be  realised. 

In  the  above  discussion,  only  the  ideal  ele- 
lents  have  been  presented.    It  must  be  remem- 

jred,  however,  that  the  entire  process  is  a 
jensorimotor  one,  and  that  ideal  reinforcement 
is  only  a  part  of  the  process. 

2.  Cerebral.  In  cerebral  development,  the 
first  centres  to  be  developed  are  those  of  smell, 
sight,  hearing,  touch,  and  body  sense  (skin  and 
muscles).  Soon  after  this,  the  motor  fibres 
appear.  These  are  called  the  primary  zone  areas 
and  have  projection  fibres,  both  sensory  and 
motor.  Later  still,  the  association  areas  acquire 
their  myelinated  or  sheathed  fibres.  Upon  ana- 
tomical grounds  the  order  of  development  may 
be  said  to  be  from  sensorimotor  impression  to 
association  and  differentiation.^^ 

(a)  Reflex,  The  simplest  act  of  attention 
from  the  cerebral  side  is  an  instinctive  response 
to  an  external  impression.  A  light,  a  sound,  a 
sudden  touch,  etc.,  impel  the  sense  organs  to 
instinctive  adjustment.  Further  response  may 
also  be  excited.     The  nervous  impulse  passes 

"HoweU,  W.  H.,  Phys.,  Ch.  X. 


126  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

by  way  of  the  spinal  cord  to  some  motor  neuron. 
In  addition,  it  passes  up  and  leaves  a  trace  in  a 
sense  tract  of  the  cerebrum.  The  motor  impulse, 
after  effecting  muscular  response,  produces  a 
muscular  sensation.  This  likewise  is  carried  back 
to  the  brain  and  deposited  in  the  corresponding 
sense  tract.  By  these  means  experience  leaves 
its  mark  on  the  individual,  and  builds  up  a  sen- 
sorimotor basis  for  further  use. 

(fe)  Cerebral.  The  various  traces  which  are 
left  in  the  cortex  are  connected  in  different  de- 
grees of  complexity.  Visual  combine  with  audi- 
tory and  tactile  impressions,  and  all  lead  in  some 
way  to  the  motor  areas.  Upon  later  excitation 
they  serve  to  reinforce  impulses  which  come  from 
without.  According  as  experience  has  developed 
traces  will  some  cerebral  dispositions  be  roused 
and  others  not.  In  other  words,  some  impres- 
sions are  selected  or  discriminated  by  the  indi- 
vidual, and  others  inhibited.  A  botanist  will  see 
a  flower  in  a  light  different  from  that  of  a  florist. 
A  cook  may  see  in  it  something  different  from 
that  which  attracts  the  attention  of  either.  In 
cerebral  terms,  discrimination  and  selection  mean 
simply  nervous  reinforcement  of  an  impression 
by  means  of  residual  traces  of  former  ex- 
periences.    No  doubt  natural  tendencies  have 


THE  PSYCHOPHYSICAL  ASPECT      127 

something  to  do  with  the  acquiring  of  such 
experiences.  But  any  cerebral  reinforcement  is 
dependent  upon  traces  left  by  former  impressions 
and  reactions. 

(c)  Frontal,  On  the  cerebral  side  further 
development  consists  in  the  connections  which  are 
made  among  the  various  traces  left.  Since  many 
association  fibres  acquire  their  sheaths  only  late 
in  life,  and  some  not  at  all,  it  is  evident  that  in- 
crease in  the  complexity  of  associations  proceeds 
so  long  as  the  individual  is  active.  Development 
in  this  connection  is  by  no  means  restricted  to  the 
years  of  childhood.  In  voluntary  attention,  con- 
siderable motor  control  is  necessary.  On  the 
cerebral  side,  however,  there  is  nothing  to  indi- 
cate that  in  such  attention  the  cerebral  process  is 
anything  more  than  association  and  predom- 
inance of  some  system  of  dispositions. 

In  cases  of  voluntary  reactions  the  impulses  take  a 
longer  pathway  and  involve  a  larger  series  of  central 
nerve-elements,  since  from  the  point  at  which  they  enter 
the  system  they  must  pass  to  the  cephalic  end  and  back 
again  to  the  efferent  elements.  At  the  same  time,  in  a 
voluntary  action,  a  greater  number  of  impulses  combine 
to  modify  the  discharge  from  the  efferent  cells.^^ 

Any  feeling  of  strain  which  may  be  felt  in 

^American  Text-Book  of  Physiology,  2:226. 


128  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

voluntary  attention  is  simply  sensation  of  mus- 
cular effort,  end-organ  adjustments,  etc.,  as 
pointed  out  in  a  preceding  section. 

§  IV.  EXPLANATION 

1.  Ideal.  When  an  impression  is  lifted  into 
the  centre  of  attention,  clothed  with  meaning, 
and  reinforced  by  associations,  one  underlying 
law  can  be  found  to  explain  the  process.  The 
present  moment  on  the  ideal  side  consists  of  the 
impression,  p^  plus  the  revived  elements  which 
give  to  'p  its  meaning  and  direction.  The  total 
state  may  be  represented  by  pmn,  in  which  m 
represents  the  meaning  due  to  ideal  revival,  and 
n  the  tendency  to  pass  onwards  in  the  direction 
developed  by  previous  experience.  This  whole 
moment  then  may  excite  a  series  of  ideas  or 
images  which  in  themselves  have  meanings  and 
tendencies.  The  process  of  revival  may  be 
represented  by  the  series, 

pm^Uy  amifii  bm2n2  cm^n^,  •    •    •  etc. 
These  moments  represent  the  process  on  the 
ideal  side.    If  we  represent  the  objects  which  cor- 
respond or  have  at  some  time  corresponded  with 
the  mental  states  we  have, 
pmjiy  amiTii  bm^Uz  cm^n^,  •    •    •  etc.  Mental 

Ml    III    III   III 

11^1^   22^2''  SS'S^  ^■i'-i-'  •    ■    ■  etc.  Physical 


THE  PSYCHOPHYSICAL  ASPECT      129 

For  example,  suppose  I  attend  to  the  book  before 
me.  This  is  a  definite  object,  and  corresponds 
to  1, 1^,  etc.,  according  as  I  have  seen  it  a  number 
of  times  in  various  connections.  If  I  continue  to 
look  at  it  I  may  recall  the  store  in  which  I  bought 
it,  the  persons  whom  I  met  at  the  time,  the  use 
to  which  I  have  put  it,  and  so  on.  Such  ideas  are 
represented  by  am^rii,  bin^n^,  etc.  But  the 
actual  situation,  the  store,  for  example,  is  repre- 
sented by  2,  2^,  etc.  If  we  consider  the  mental 
states  we  can  formulate  some  one  law  which  will 
explain  the  ideal  succession.  If  we  consider  the 
objects,  however,  to  which  the  mental  states  cor- 
respond, as  book-store,  etc.,  we  have  forms  or 
relations  of  association  which  give  us  contiguity, 
similarity,  purpose,  or  what  not.  These  points 
of  view,  if  confused,  lead  to  a  misconception  of 
the  law  of  psychophysical  association.^^ 

The  law  which  underlies  the  ideal  revival  of 
reinforcing  dispositions  may  be  stated  as  follows : 

Any  element  tends  to  reinstate  the  en- 
tire moment  of  which  it  constitutes  a 
part,  which  moment  tends  (1)  to  dif- 
fuse itself   along  some  one  of  the  paths 

"See  Arnold,  F.,  *The  Unity  of  Mental  Life,*  Jour.  PhU., 
Psych.,  and  Sci.  Meth.,  2.  'Association  and  Atomism,'  ibid.  'The 
Initial  Tendency  in  Ideal  Revival,'  Am,  Jour,  of  Psych.,  18. 


130  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

which  have  been  formed,  and  (2)  to  leave 
a  trace  of  itself  as  a  whole  for  future  revival 
and  development. 

What  we  have  is  neither  contiguity  nor  similar- 
ity, but  rather  continuity  of  ideal  processes. 
Contiguity,  similarity,  etc.,  refer  to  the  objects 
correspondent  with  the  ideas. 

The  special  direction  which  such  diffusion  will 
take  depends  upon  various  factors  in  previous 
experience.  These  give  rise  to  what  are  called 
extrinsic  secondary  laws  of  association,  namely, 
(1)  repetition,  (2)  vividness,  (3)  recency,  (4) 
primacy,  and  (5)  emotional  congruity.  They 
may  be  stated  briefly  as  follows : 

( 1 )  Situations  which  are  frequently  presented 
tend  to  develop  dispositions  which  are  readily 
revived. 

(2)  Situations  which  are  vivid  tend  to  leave 
traces  which  are  readily  revived. 

(3)  Situations  which  have  been  recently  ex- 
perienced tend  to  leave  traces  which  are  readily 
revived. 

(4)  First  impressions  tend  to  leave  traces 
which  are  readily  revived. 

(5)  Situations  which  excite  an  emotion  leave 
traces  which  are  readily  revived  when  the  emo- 
tional attitude  is  again  taken  even  if  for  differ- 


THE  PSYCHOPHYSICAL  ASPECT      131 

ent  reasons.  Revivability  may  be  caused  by 
reappearance  of  the  situation  itself,  or,  according 
to  the  law  of  association  just  given,  by  any  other 
situation  which  has  common  elements,  or  which 
is  objectively  or  formally  connected  with  it  as 
suggested  in  the  forms  or  relations  of  association 
outlined  in  a  section  above.  Thus,  similar  mem- 
ories may  be  roused  by  the  sight  of  a  friend,  of 
his  photograph,  of  his  name,  of  a  present  from 
him,  etc.  The  stimulus  serves  to  rouse  the  whole 
disposition,  which  then  diffuses  in  different 
directions. 

The  secondary  laws  are  probably  variations  of 
the  one  law  of  repetition.  Thus,  a  vivid  situation 
will  leave  a  trace  which  is  readily  revived  upon 
another  occasion.  This  gives  repetition  of  the  re- 
vival with  further  associations.  Such  associations 
may  stimulate  other  revivals,  with  increased  repe- 
tition. So  the  process  continues.  First  impres- 
sions operate  in  a  similar  manner.  Thus,  early 
impressions  in  childhood  are  constantly  resur- 
rected by  our  home  surroundings,  friends,  house- 
hold gods,  and  the  like.  So,  by  repetition,  they 
become  imbedded  more  deeply  in  the  memory. 
The  same  holds  true  to  a  certain  extent  for  emo- 
tional congruity,  and  for  recency.  At  bottom, 
repetition  of  impressions  and  revivals  is  the  most 


132  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

important  means  by  which  direction,  order,  and 
organization  of  associations  become  fixed. 

On  the  subjective  side  we  have  as  intrinsic 
secondary  laws  of  association,  (1)  organisation, 
(2)  comprehensiveness,  (3)  cooperation  and 
strength  of  cohesiveness  between  parts,  (4)  the 
nature  of  the  predominating  sensory  elements, 
and  (5)  general  conditions  of  freshness  and 
vitality  of  the  individual.^ ^  Such  organisation 
and  systemisation  will  depend  in  part  upon 
natural  tendencies,  and  in  part  upon  en- 
vironment and  education.  Briefly  stated  these 
intrinsic  secondary  laws  are: 

(1)  The  direction  and  the  duration  of  ideal 
diffusion  and  association  are  dependent  upon  the 
organisation  of  the  mental  dispositions  aroused. 

(2)  The  number  of  associations  which  can  be 
revived  depends  upon  the  comprehensiveness  of 
the  ideal  systems  excited. 

(3)  The  persistence  of  any  ideal  system  de- 
pends upon  the  strength  and  number  of  its 
various  parts. 

(4)  The  quality  or  the  ideas  or  images 
revived  depends  upon  the  predominating  sensory 
elements. 

(5)  Organisation,  comprehensiveness,  etc.,  are 

"Stout,  G.  F.,  Analytic  Psychology,  2:Ch.  VII,  §6-8. 


THE  PSYCHOPHYSICAL  ASPECT      133 

more  or  less  effective  in  facilitating  the  ease 
and  duration  of  revival  according  as  the  indi- 
vidual is  rested  or  fatigued. 

The  function  of  the  ideas,  images,  and  dispo- 
sitions which  are  revived  are  (l)  to  reinforce 
incoming  impressions  and  to  inhibit  others,  Le.^, 
to  discriminate  and  select,  and  (2)  to  give  guid- 
ance to  motor  attitudes  and  control.  The  former 
has  already  been  described.  A  word  or  two  is 
necessary  to  emphasise  the  latter.  Ideas  and 
images  in  themselves  are  bleak  and  barren.  Only 
as  they  are  accompanied  by  attitudes  or  more 
open  motor  response  do  they  have  life  and  real- 
ity. Even  the  most  abstruse  and  speculative 
inquiries  give  forth  tendencies  and  lead  to  atti- 
tudes which  are  satisfying,  pleasurable,  or  the 
reverse.  Such  attitudes  stand  for,  and  in  a  way, 
represent  the  fuller  motor  explication  which 
would  follow  in  complete  realisation  of  the  ideas. 
This  motor  attitude  will  be  considered  fully  in 
the  next  chapter. 

2.  Cerebral.  A  sensory  stimulus  leads  to  a 
motor  discharge  because  the  nervous  paths  are 
organised  that  way.  All  nervous  impulses  pass 
in  a  forward  direction  from  sense  organ  to  sen- 
sory cells,  and  then  to  motor  cells  and  to  the 
muscles.    In  reflex  and  instinctive  responses  the 


134  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

sensory  stimulation  alone  is  sufficient  to  open 
the  nerve  paths  and  start  the  complete  sensori- 
motor process. 

In  acquired  responses,  paths  between  the  corti- 
cal cells  are  probably  broken  through  by  the 
localised  emphasis  of  the  tonic  activity  of  the 
nervous  system.  The  more  or  less  uniform  ner- 
vous pressure  which  is  present  during  the  vv^aking 
state  is  raised  in  intensity  by  sensor}'^  stimulation. 
A  heightened  activity  is  thus  produced  in  some  of 
the  cortical  cells.  Such  activity  flows  forward 
towards  motor  cells.  It  also  drains  cells  con- 
nected with  those  excited  by  sensory  stimulation. 
When  several  sensory  cells  are  excited,  the 
heightened  diffusion  of  nervous  energy  in  re- 
stricted portions  of  the  cortex  probably  opens 
up  connecting  paths  between  them,  some  by 
pressure,  some  by  drainage.^  ^  Later  excitations 
will  then  flow  in  such  paths  as  have  been  opened, 
i.e,,  will  pass  along  the  line  of  least  resistance. 
Individual  capacity  and  organisation  of  cerebral 
cells  and  fibres  may  likewise  condition  the  kinds 
of  connections  which  can  be  made. 

The  nervous  processes  which  go  on  in  acts  of 
attention  may  be  briefly  explained.  When  a 
sensory  impression  is  reinforced  by  an  ideal  dis- 

"  James,  W.,  Princ.  of  Psych.,  2:580-592. 


THE  PSYCHOPHYSICAL  ASPECT      135 

position  or  a  series  of  dispositions,  the  corres- 
pondent cerebral  process  is  somewhat  as  follows : 
The  nervous  impulse  passes  along  lines  of  least 
resistance  to  the  cortex  and  diffuses  into  chan- 
nels which  have  been  formed  by  previous  exper- 
ience. Tonic  activity  of  the  cerebrum  becomes 
heightened  and  focalised  within  narrow  sensori- 
motor limits.  Motor  responses  may  result  in 
further  discrimination  and  selection  of  aspects 
of  the  situation  and  so  give  rise  to  more  impres- 
sions, and  stimulate  greater  sensorimotor  activity. 
In  abstract  thought  motor  attitudes  may  serve 
the  same  purpose.  The  question  of  motor  re- 
sponse is,  in  fact,  one  of  the  most  important  in 
the  attentive  process.^ ^ 

"  Baldwin,  J.  Mark,  Mental  Development  in  the  Child  and  the 
Race,  Ch.  XIV. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE   PHYSIOLOGICAL   ASPECT   OF 
ATTENTION 

§  I.  DESCRIPTION 

1.  Organic.  Attention  to  a  situation  is 
marked  by  a  number  of  organic  changes,  some  of 
which  are  more  or  less  constant.  The  general 
organic  changes  involve  (1)  respiration,  (2) 
vasomotor  constriction  of  peripheral  arteries,  and 
(3)   circulation.^ 

*  Among  others  see  Angell,  James  Rowland,  and  Thompson, 
Helen  Bradford,  'A  Study  of  the  Relations  between  Certain  Or- 
ganic Processes  and  Consciousness,'  Psych.  Rev.,  6:32-69. 
MacDougall,  Robert,  *The  Physical  Characteristics  of  Attention,' 
Ibid.,  3:158-180.  McGamble,  Eleanor  A.,  'Attention  and  Thoracic 
Breathing,'  Am.  Jour,  of  Psych.,  16:261-292.  Mentz,  Paul,  'Die 
Wirkung  akustischer  Sinnesreize  auf  Puis  und  Athmung,'  Phil. 
Stud.,  11:61-124,  371-393,  563-602.  Zoneff,  P.,  und  Meumann,  E., 
*Ueber  Begleiterscheinungen  psychischer  Vorgange  in  Athem  und 
Puis,'  Phil.  Stud.,  18:1-113.  Stevens,  H.  C,  'A  Plethysraograph 
Study  of  Attention,'  Am.  Jour,  of  Psych.,  16:409-483.  J.  J.  van 
Biervliet,  'Ueber  den  Einfluss  der  Geschwindigkeit  des  Pulses  auf 
die  Zeitdauer  der  Reactionszeit  by  Schalleindriicken,'  Phil.  Stud., 
10:160-167,  and  'Ueber  den  Einfluss  der  Geschwindigkeit  des 
Pulses  auf  die  Zeitdauer  der  Reactionszeit  bei  Licht-  und  Tastein- 
driicken,'  Ibid.,  11:125-134.  Delabarre,  Edmond  B.,  'L'Influence 
de  L'Attention  sur  les  Mouvements  Respiratoires,'  Bev.  Phil., 
33:639-649.  Bonser,  F.  G.,  'A  Study  of  the  Relations  between 
Mental  Activity  and  the  Circulation  of  the  Blood,'  Psych.  Rev., 
10:120-138.  Binet,  A.  and  Vaschide,  N.,  'The  Influence  of  In- 
tellectual Work  on  the  Blood-Pressure  in  Man,'  Ibid.,  4:54-66. 

136 


THE  PHYSIOLOGICAL  ASPECT        137 

(a)  Respiration,  Concentrated  attention  usu- 
ally gives  rise  to  rapid,  shallow  breathing.  The 
inspiration  becomes  shorter,  the  expiration 
shorter,  and  the  rate  more  rapid.  The  respira- 
tion may  be  slightly  inhibited.  Variations  are 
possible,  both  in  the  rate  and  depth  of  the 
respirations. 

(b)  Vasoconstriction,  Wheii  the  volume  of 
the  hand  or  finger  is  measured  during  attention, 
it  usually  shows  a  decrease  due  to  a  sympathetic 
constriction  of  the  peripheral  arteries.  Such 
constriction  may  be  slowly  succeeded  by  a  grad- 
ual dilation  of  the  arteries  to  the  normal.  It  may 
be  accompanied  by  dilation  of  the  cerebral  ar- 
teries and  increase  in  the  supply  of  blood  to  the 
brain. 

(c)  Circulation,  During  attention  the  pulse 
becomes  more  rapid.  There  is  always  some  vari- 
ation in  the  pulse  during  concentrated  atten- 
tion of  any  kind.  There  is  also  found  a  change 
in  blood  pressure  due  in  part  to  change  in  heart 
beat  and  in  part  to  vasoconstriction  of  the  ar- 
teries. Blood  pressure  tends  to  increase  during 
periods  of  attentive  activity.  There  seems  like- 
wise to  be  a  redistribution  of  the  supply  which 
favors  those  areas  which  have  been  called  into 
service.    In  moments  of  concentrated  mental  ap- 


138  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

plication  it  seems  that  the  brain  receives  a  greater 
supply  of  blood.  It  also  shows  a  rise  in 
temperature. 

2.  Sensory.  On  the  side  of  sensory  accom- 
modation and  fixation  attention  consists  of  (1) 
changes  within  the  organ  itself  which  facilitate 
adjustment,  and  (2)  motor  adaptations  for  the 
purpose  of  fixation. 

(a)  Accommodation,  In  vision,  the  follow- 
ing changes  take  place  during  visual  attention: 

(1)  There  is  adaptation  of  the  pupil  which 
controls  the  admission  of  light  and  so  conditions 
visual  distinctness  and  clearness. 

( 2 )  The  surface  of  the  lens  changes,  becoming 
more  convex  in  the  middle  and  flatter  towards 
the  periphery.^ 

When  external  conditions  are  artificially  va- 
ried the  following  changes  may  be  noted: 

( 1 )  When  the  eyes  fixate  a  spot  directly  ahead 
and  at  the  same  time  attend  to  an  object  out  of 
line  with  direct  vision,  the  pupil  shows  an  increase 
in  size. 

(2)  When  the  light  is  decreased  in  intensity 
the  pupil  increases  in  size. 

(3)  In  mental  processes  which  require  no  im- 

^  Tscherning,  M.,  Physiological  Optics,  Eng.  tr.  by  C.  Weiland, 
Ch.  XII. 


THE  PHYSIOLOGICAL  ASPECT        139 

mediate  use  of  vision  the  pupil  expands  the  most. 
At  the  same  time  the  lens  becomes  correspond- 
ingly flatter.^ 

Changes  in  the  other  sense  organs  are  not  so 
evident.  In  audition  it  is  highly  probable  that 
the  two  intrinsic  muscles  of  the  ear,  the  tensor 
tympani  and  the  stapedius,  function  as  a  means 
of  accommodation  for  the  tympanic  membrane 
and  for  the  membrane  attached  to  the  base  of  the 
stapedius.  In  tasting,  the  increased  flow  of  sa- 
liva, and  in  smelling,  the  increased  dilation  of 
the  nostrils  and  the  stronger  inhalations  likewise 
function  to  bring  about  distinctness  and  clear- 
ness in  the  field  of  attention. 

(b)  Fixation.  Control  of  a  sensory  situation 
involves  fixation  of  the  end  organs.  If  the 
situation  is  a  visual  one,  the  eyes  turn  towards 
it  and  focus  it.  If  auditory,  the  head  turns  in 
the  direction  of  the  sound.  If  tactile,  the  fingers 
feel  and  touch  it.  If  gustatory,  the  tongue  rolls 
it  about  and  takes  different  shapes  and  posi- 
tions. The  whole  mechanism  seeks  to  produce 
clearness  and  distinctness.  Accurate  observa- 
tions have  been  made  in  visual  fixation.  The 
movements  of  the  eye  have  been  photographed 

'Heinrich,  W.,  *Die  Aufmerksamkeit  und  die  Funktion  der 
Sinnesorgane,'  Zeit.  f.  Psych,  u.  Phys.  d.  Sinnesorg.,  9:342-388 


140  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

both  in  general  fixation  and  in  reading.  It  is 
shown  by  such  photographs  that  the  eye,  in  fix- 
ating a  point,  does  not  remain  rigid,  but  fixates 
around  the  point,  covering  a  small  area.  More- 
over, the  two  eyes  are  not  exactly,  but  only  ap- 
proximately coordinate  in  fixating  a  point  or  in 
passing  over  a  line  from  one  end  to  the  other.* 
In  reading,  the  eyes  cover  the  printed  page  by  a 
series  of  rapid  movements  from  left  to  right. 
These  movements  vary  in  number  between  2  and 
7  for  a  single  line  and  usually  number  from  4  to 
6.  A  slight  pause  occurs  between  each  movement 
and  the  one  which  follows  it.  The  area  which  can 
be  seen  at  any  single  moment  is  represented  ap- 


• 


Fig.  XVII.  Visual  field  in  read- 
ing (After  Huey,  E.  B.,  Psych, 
and  Fed.   of  Read.,   52). 

proximately  by  the  following  diagram.    By  fix- 
ating the  central  dot  one   can  see  the  letters 

*  Yale  Psychological  Studies^  Psych.  Rev.,  Mon.  Sup.,  7,  'Intro- 
duction to  a  Series  of  Studies  of  Eye  Movements  by  Means  of 
Kinetoscopic  Photographs,'  C.  H.  Judd,  C.  N.  McAllister,  and 
W.  M.  Steele,  'The  Fixation  of  Points  in  the  Visual  Field/  C.  N. 
McAllister. 


THE  PHYSIOLOGICAL^ASPECT        141 

written  within  the  given  area.  It  seems  that 
'more  is  read  to  the  right  of  the  fixation  point 
than  to  the  left.'^ 

(3)  Motor.  An  important  factor  in  the  at- 
tention process  is  the  motor  aspect.  Even  when 
actual  motor  control  is  not  in  operation, 
motor  attitudes  and  innervations  serve  instead 
to  give  meaning  to  a  situation  and  to  effect  sat- 
isfaction, ease,  quiescence,  or  pleasure.  The 
motor  aspect  of  attention  usually  assumes  three 
forms,  (1)  motor  diffusions,  (2)  motor  inner- 
vations or  attitudes,  and  (3)  complete  motor 
control. 

(a)  Motor  diffusion.  That  ideas  and  images 
tend  to  realise  themselves  in  action  may  be  seen 
in  moments  of  intellectual  application.  Hand, 
head  and  body  movements  indicate  that  nervous 
impulses  are  passing  through  motor  channels. 
The  head,  face,  fingers,  and  feet  seem  to  be 
affected  the  most.  A  careful  study  of  such  auto- 
matic movements  has  been  made  by  Lindley  and 
the  results  of  his  findings  are  given  below.^    The 

'Huey,  Edmund  Burke,  The  Psychology  and  Pedagogy  of 
Beading,  Ch.  III.  See  also  Dearborn,  W.  F,,  'The  Psychology  of 
Reading,'  Arch,  of  Phil,  Psych.,  and  Sci.  Meth.,  4. 

•Lindley,  Ernest  H.,  *A  Preliminary  Study  of  Some  of  the 
Motor  Phenomena  of  Mental  Effort,'  Am.  Jour,  of  Psych., 
8:491-517. 


142  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

general  grouping  of  such  movements  is  seen  in 
the  following: 

Head:  Held  on  side,  move  sideways,  move  up  and 
down,  move  with  pen,  jerky  movements,  move. 

Face:  Grin,  grimace. 

Eyes:  Fixed,  wink,  close,  twitch,  roll,  squint,  bulge. 

Ears:  Move. 

Forehead:  Wrinkle,  frown. 

Mouth:  Twitch,  drop  corners,  chew,  move. 

Jaw:  Bite,  chew,  put  objects  in,  clench,  move  sideways. 

Lips:  Draw  in  and  out,  pucker,  move,  work,  bite,  press, 
twist,  suck,  chew. 

Tongue:  Protrude,  move  sideways,  move  in  and  out, 
move  with  pen,  bite,  chew,  roll  in  one  cheek,  suck. 

Hands:  Play,  clasp,  clench,  rub  or  scratch,  put  in 
pocket,  wriggle,  pull  hairs,  etc.,  twist  hair,  smooth,  put 
objects  in,  move. 

Fingers:  Play,  drum,  mark  on  paper,  move  up  and 
down,  point,  move,  snap,  pull. 

Arms:  Fold  and  unfold,  jerky  movements. 

Legs:  Cross,  move,  move  knees,  twist,  raise  heel,  twist 
heel. 

Feet:  Sides  of  feet,  stand  on  one  foot,  right  on  left, 
left  on  right,  rise  on  toes,  rock,  lift  one  foot,  move, 
stamp,  wriggle,  cross,  tap,  shake.'' 

In  addition,  the  following  tables  give  the  auto- 
matisms most  frequent  with  children  and  adoles- 


''Ihid.,  493. 


i 


THE  PHYSIOLOGICAL  ASPECT        143 


cents,  and  also  the  movements  characteristic  of 
various  activities: 


I 
Ch. 

II 

Ad. 

III 
Ch.  I.8I 

IV 
A 

Freq.Ch. 

Freq.Ad. 

A' 

Fingers 

81 

143 

146 

102 

Fingers 

Fingers 

Head+ 

Feet 

72 

57 

130.3 

228 

Feet 

Feet 

Mouth+ 

Lips 

71 

53 

128 

241 

Lips 

Eyes 

Legs+ 

Tongue 

57 

26 

103 

396 

Tongue 

Lips 

Tongue+ 

Head 

48 

8 

86.8 

1085 

Head 

Hands 

Face+ 

Body 

42 

.  33 

76 

230 

Body 

Jaw 

Lips+ 

Hands 

32 

49 

57.9 

118 

Hands 

Forehead 

Body+ 

Mouth 

20 

6 

36.2 

603 

Mouth 

Body 

Feet+ 

Eyes 

15 

56 

27 

48 

Eyes 

Tongue 

Hands+ 

Jaw 

13 

49 

23.5 

47 

Jaw 

Head 

Fingers + 

Legs 

6 

2 

10.8 

540 

Legs 

Mouth 

Arms- 

Forehead 

5 

34 

9.05 

26 

Forehead 

Legs 

Eyes— 

Face 

3 

2 

5.43 

271 

Face 

Face 

Jaw- 

Arms 

1 

2 

1.81 

90 

Arms 

Arms 

Forehead— 

Ears 

2 

Ears 

Ears 

Ears- 

I  Ch.=children. 
II  Ad.^adolescents. 

III  Ch.=no.  ch.  X  1.81,  there  being  1.81  more  adolescents  than 
children  reported. 

IV  A=percentages    of   children's    automatisms    as    compared 
with  adolescents. 

A'=:percentages  arranged  in  order,  -j-  meaning  more  and 
—  less  for  children. 

Table  XXXVII 


The  following  is  a  classification  according  to 
activity: 


144 


ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 


s 

1X4 


«5  CC  CO  «5  *0  CC  CO 
OS  t-  X  CO  «o  ■<*<  ■* 


OiOt-'*MCOMMO^'—  ^ 

OTOi(y)cx)co?ooco50(>»G^o» 


>;»^5  •S'  o  «  ^  .S  ®  ^  ^  o  5 

t^OO«OCCb--**OMO<5*XXX 


50  >^.-^  QQ  (D  "^ 


1 


<»  fl  H<  Ph  S'  S  ^  taD'^  «  t-t 


'S 


Pt    C8 


"-■% 


ccoococoxxx 


.S  o  k»*  <»i2  ^-^ 


coocooot^cocc'o^'o 

«5O5COC0CS^'*O4<5<'-''-''-" 

O^   1— (    1— I    l-H    I— I 


-^^  S)^sf  ^-S  OS'S  ®  d 

«.S  o  >^*  Si  o-tr®  ee  »-< 

ooooo*ocoxx 

^X-^-^i-i'OCOi-ii-i 


2  <D 

73  *  g  a  CD  o^fl  «  ^ 


1 


X 


I 


THE  PHYSIOLOGICAL  ASPECT        145 

The  direction  of  the  motor  diffusions  may- 
be determined  by  the  following  test:  A  plate 
glass,  made  opaque,  rests  on  three  ball  bearings. 
Attached  to  the  frame  around  the  glass  is  a  rod. 
At  the  end  of  the  rod  is  a  cork.  Through  the 
cork  is  a  pencil.  Under  the  pencil  is  a  smoked 
paper.  When  the  hand  is  placed  on  the  plate 
glass  and  attention  is  concentrated  on  something 
else,  the  direction  of  the  movements  as  recorded 
on  the  smoked  paper  will  indicate  roughly  the 
direction  of  the  attention.  Jastrow  found  that 
the  hand  moves  in  the  direction  of  colors  when 
they  are  recognised  and  named  in  horizontal 
rows,  and  from  left  to  right  or  the  reverse  when 
they  are  named  from  left  to  right  or  from  right 
to  left.  So,  too,  the  hand  movement  tends  to 
accompany  the  rhythm  in  counting  the  beats 
of  a  metronome,  or,  if  not,  to  move  towards  the 
sound.  In  thinking  of  some  hidden  objects,  the 
marks  on  the  paper  indicate  roughly  the  direction 
in  which  the  objects  lie.* 

(&)  Motor  innervation.  The  tests  just  men- 
tioned may  be  considered  in  part  as  evidence  of 
motor  innervation.  Definite  tests  by  Miinster- 
berg  and  Campbell  point  to  the  same  thing.    If 

'Jastrow,  Joseph,  'A  Study  of  Involuntary  Movements,'  Am. 
Jour,  of  Psych.,  4:398-407. 
10 


146 


ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 


an  observer  gazes  at  an  object,  closes  his  eyes, 
and  then  turns  his  head  sideways,  the  eyes  lag 
somewhat  behind  the  head  rotation,  and  in  fact 
may  not  turn  at  all.  This  is  shown  by  measuring 
the  head  rotation  in  degrees  and  the  correspon- 
dent eye  rotation,  also  in  degrees.  The  subject 
opens  his  eyes  as  soon  as  he  has  finished  turning 
his  head,  and  the  rotation  of  the  eyes  is  immedi- 
ately measured.  The  following  diagram  shows 
a  phase  of  the  relative  positions  of  head  and  eyes : 


Fig.    XVIII.      O,    object.      E,    eyes.      H,    head 

Even  though  the  head  has  turned  from  O  to  Hj  ^ 
the  eyes  still  tend  to  fixate  O  which  was  looked  at 
before  the  turning  of  the  head  began.  The  fol- 
lowing tables  show  the  difference  between  the 
head  and  the  eye  rotations,  such  differences  being 
conditioned  by  the  nature  of  the  stimulating 
object:^ 

» Munsterberg,  H.,  and  Campbell,  W.  C,  'The  Motor  Power  of 
Ideas,'  Psych.  Rev,,  1:441-453. 


THE  PHYSIOLOGICAL  ASPECT        147 

Observer  M 


1  second 

2  second 

3  second 

4  second 

Average 

/ 

E 

H 

E 

H 

E 

H 

E 

H 

E 

H 

Letters 

12 

50 

25 

48 

48 

52 

48 

50 

33 

50 

One  word 

13 

46 

25 

46 

47 

47 

47 

52 

33 

48 

Nine  words 

0 

48 

8 

49 

17 

48 

28 

50 

13 

49 

Picture 

14 

46 

32 

50 

45 

52 

47 

47 

35 

49 

Nine 

pictures 

0 

45 

0 

47 

2 

50 

16 

49 

5 

48 

One  color 

4 

48 

28 

47 

31 

50 

47 

52 

28 

49 

Two  colors 

4 

47 

22 

47 

23 

46 

46 

48 

24 

47 

Irregular 

colors 

0 

46 

16 

48 

25 

50 

39 

51 

20 

49 

Photo- 

graph 

5 

52 

15 

51 

22 

52 

28 

50 

18 

51 

Num.  for 

addition 

42 

52 

47 

47 

42 

52 

44 

49 

44 

50 

Average 

9.4 

48.0 

21.8 

48.0 

30.2 

.49.9 

39.0 

49.8 

25.1 

48.9 

Observer  S 


Average 


17.4 


36.0 


14.8 


36.6    17.9 


36.0 


17.9 


35.7 


17.0 


36.1 


Observer  C 


Average 


26.7 

41.6 

21.6 

43.0 

20.4 

42.4 

19.3 

42.8 

22.25 

54.25 


Table   XXXIX 

All  three  subjects  agree  that  a  simple  letter,  word, 
color,  or  picture  has  the  weakest  motor  influence;  all 
agree  that  two  colors  have  more  power  than  one,  and 
the  irregular  colors  still  more  .  .  .  ;  that  nine  pictures 
have  by  far  stronger  motor  energy  than  one  .  .  .    ;  nine 


148  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

words  stronger  than  one  .  .  .  ;  that  the  photograph  of 
a  person  has  far  stronger  motor  function  than  the  simply 
sketched  picture  of  an  object  of  daily  life/® 

Images  and  ideas  are  strongly  reinforced  by 
motor  innervations,  especially  when  conflict  arises 
or  when  greater  distinctness  is  desired.  In  tests 
on  the  fluctuation  of  visual  fields  or  changing 
perspectives,  eye  movements  will  reinforce  one 
aspect  at  the  expense  of  the  other.  Thus,  if  one 
fixates  the  staircase  figure  or  the  cube  figure, 
motor  innervations  will  determine  in  part  whether 
the  figure  is  to  jut  forward  or  retreat  backward. 
In  fixating  a  field  of  white  dots  on  a  black  back- 
ground, the  form,  as,  square,  circle,  triangle,  etc., 
into  which  the  spots  fall,  may  be  determined  in 
part  by  innervations  of  the  eye  muscles  and  the 
head. 

Memory  images  of  objects   and   places   are 
made  more  definite  by  such  innervations  and 
movements.     Distinctness  and  clearness  are  fa-*^ 
cilitated  by  these  motor  aids,  especially  when 
shape,  or  size,  or  position,  are  in  doubt.     Situav 
tions  of  greater  complexity,  as  those  which  in- 
volve mechanical  arrangements,  movements  of 
parts,   machinery,   and  the  like,   can  often  be> 
attended  to  only  by  the  aid  of  motor  tendencies } 

"^Ihid^  451-452. 


THE  PHYSIOLOGICAL  ASPECT        149 

felt  in  the  fingers,  hands,  body,  and  head.  At 
times,  such  tendencies  become  realised  in  actual 
movements,  or  in  the  definite  construction  of 
schematic  diagrams.  Only  by  such  aids  can  the 
ideal  situation  persist  in  the  centre  of  attention.^^ 
In  more  abstract  application,  the  motor  atti- 
tudes are  usually  overlooked.  There  will  be 
found,  however,  pauses  and  intermissions  in 
which  the  series  of  ideas  or  images  is  followed 
by  a  more  or  less  definite  motor  attitude,  or  even 
by  motor  reactions.  There  may  be  a  shake  of  the 
head,  a  body  tendency  towards  or  from  some 
ideal  situation,  hand  and  finger  movements  to 
emphasise  affirmation  and  negation,  in  short,  a 
general  attitude  which  determines  in  what  direc- 
tion further  thought  should  go.  In  addition  to 
such  definite  pauses,  there  is  a  constant  interplay 
between  ideas  and  innervations,  in  which  the 
former  are  tested,  as  it  were,  in  a  tentative  man- 
ner. These  motor  innervations  give  rise  to  a 
feeling  tone  and  reinforce  one  or  the  other  series 
of  ideas.  In  such  cases  the  motor  innervations 
and  attitudes  stand  for  actual  manipulation  and 
control.     They  give  approximately  similar  feel- 

"  See  Lange,  N.,  'Beitrage  zur  Theorie  der  sinnlichen  Auf- 
merksamkeit  und  der  activen  Apperception,'  Phil.  Stud.,  4:413-422. 
Strieker,  S.,  Studien  iiber  die  Sprachvorstellungen,  Miinsterberg, 
H.,  Beitrage  zur  Experimentellen  Psychologie,  Heft  2. 


150  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

ings  of  satisfaction,  pleasure,  and  the  like.  If 
the  attitude  is  not  sufficient  to  determine  the 
validity  of  some  train  of  thought,  then  actual 
motor  control  often  follows.  This  process  will 
be  found  even  in  the  most  abstruse  and  specula- 
tive inquiries.^  ^ 

(c)  Motor  control.  Actual  manipulation  is 
most  in  evidence  ( 1 )  when  the  child  is  first  learn- 
ing objective  values,  (2)  when  attention  involves 
full  control,  and  (3)  when  the  meaning  of  an 
image  or  idea  can  not  be  determined  or  directed 
by  motor  innervations  and  attitudes,  Le.,  when 
there  is  conflict  of  meaning  or  doubt.  When  a 
new  situation  is  presented  to  an  individual  or 
when  he  is  suddenly  confronted  with  it,  attention, 
on  the  motor  side,  is  characterised  by  an  excess 
of  movements.  If  satisfactory  control  is  not 
immediately  realised,  a  number  of  manipulations, 
some  effective,  some  ineffective,  are  attempted. 
Out  of  a  large  number  of  movements,  some  are 
capped  with  pleasure,  satisfaction,  etc.,  and  tend 
to  persist.  So  long  as  control  yields  pleasure  or 
satisfaction,  the  situation  will  tend  to  persist  in 
consciousness.^^ 

"See  Messer,  August,  'Experimentell-psychologische  Unter- 
suchungen  iiber  das  Denken,'  Arch.  f.  d.  ges.  Psych.,  8:1-224,  §8 

"  Baldwin,  J.  M.,  Ment.  Dev.y  Ch.  VII. 


THE  PHYSIOLOGICAL  ASPECT        151 

Attention  to  objective  situations  consists 
largely  of  manual  and  similar  adjustments.  The 
object  may  be  felt  in  a  passive  way,  all  parts  of 
the  hand  coming  into  contact  with  it  at  once 
(synthetic  touch),  or  the  hand  may  explore  the 
objective  actively  point  by  point  (analytic 
touch)  .^^  Dissection,  application,  and  recon- 
struction may  change  the  situation  entirely, 
affording  new  bases  for  sensory  stimulation  and 
yielding  a  richer  meaning  to  the  individual.  The 
persistence  of  the  attention  will  depend  largely 
upon  the  points  of  contact  which  are  possible  by 
such  motor  control  and  upon  the  stimulations 
which  can  be  produced  by  manual  manipulation 
and  reconstruction.  ^  A  child,  for  example,  who 
has  a  few  blocks,  will  obtain  a  certain  amount  of 
visual  stimulation  from  them.  If  he  builds  with 
them  and  rearranges  them,  he  will  give  rise  to  a 
new  source  of  stimulation.  As  he  continues  to 
play  with  them  his  different  reconstructions 
enable  his  attention  to  persist  because  of  the  vary- 
ing situations  which  are  afforded.  ^^ 

In  the  last  analysis,  vahdity  of  judgment  caiT" 
be  established  only  by  application  through  motor 

"Stout,  G.  F.,  A  Manual  of  Psychology,  Ch.  IV. 
"See   MacDougall,   Robert,   'The   Significance   of   the   Human 
Hand  in  the  Evolution  of  Mind,'  Am.  Jour,  of  Psych.,  16:232-242. 


152  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

means.  An  idea  is  tested  by  being  applied  to 
concrete  situations.  Where  a  motor  basis  has 
been  established  by  experience,  an  attitude  may 
take  the  place  of  more  explicit  realisation.  In  all/ 
such  cases  attention  consists  in  the  alternating' 
process  of  ideal  reinforcements  and  motor  inner-| 
vations.  In  both  motor  and  ideal  control,  empha- 
sis upon  any  aspect  of  a  situation  necessarily 
excludes  other  aspects.  There  is  no  special  and 
separate  activity  of  inhibition  in  such  a  case. 
Inhibition  is  simply  a  name  for  the  negative 
aspect  of  reinforcement.  Aspects  of  a  situation 
which  are  not  effective  in  exciting  ideal  dispo- 
sitions or  which  are  foreign  to  motor  control  will 
be  unable  to  persist  in  the  focus  of  attention, 
other  things  remaining  the  same.  Such  lack  of 
persistence  is  called  inhibition.  Inhibition  usu- 
ally implies  predominance  of  some  other  aspect 
of  a  situation.^^  Such  inhibition  becomes  more 
and  more  prominent  as  the  grooves  of  habit  and 
thought  become  deeper.  It  corresponds  with 
that  which  from  the  social  point  of  view  is  called 
conservatism.  As  individuals  grow  older,  new 
situations  have  less  and  less  chance  to  excite 
attention  or  to  persist  in  the  focus  of  control. 

"See  the  excellent  discussion  in  Mill,  James,  Analysis  of  the 
Phenomena  of  the  Human  Mind,  Ch.  XXIV. 


THE  PHYSIOLOGICAL  ASPECT        153 

The  periods  when  impressions  are  able  by  virtue 
of  their  own  inherent  impeUing  power  to  excite 
attention  are  the  plastic  ages  of  childhood  and 
youth. 

-4.  Fatigue.  Concentrated  activity,  especially 
When  it  involves  motor  control,  usually  results  in 
fatigue.  There  arises  decreased  irritability  and 
increased  slowness  of  response.  Efficiency  of 
attention  begins  to  decline.  In  attention  to  mini- 
mal stimuli,  the  fluctuation  periods  become 
shorter.  In  simple  reactions,  the  reaction  time 
becomes  longer.  Objects  in  the  field  of  atten- 
tion persist  for  a  less  time  in  the  centre  of  con- 
trol. On  the  subjective  side,  fatigue  is  felt  as 
weariness,  disinclination  to  persistent  effort, 
sensation  of  strain  in  the  muscles,  lack  of  interest 
in  situations  which  normally  are  of  an  impelling 
nature,  and  sometimes  as  pain  in  the  parts  of  the 
body  affected.  On  the  objective  side,  fatigue  is 
manifested  by  a  general  slackness  and  listless- 
ness  of  the  body  posture,  by  relaxed  fingers,  and 
by  asymetrical  and  fidgety  movements.  Coordi- 
nations become  more  bungling,  incorrect,  and 
for  finer  control,  often  impossible.  The  eyes 
wander,  lose  the  power  of  persistent  fixation, 
and  assume  a  general  vacsnit  expression.  Re- 
sponse to  stimulation  becomes  less   exact  and 


154  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

requires  more  time  than  usual.  In  more  ad- 
vanced stages  of  fatigue,  there  is  a  loss  of  con- 
trol, a  great  irritability,  and  an  explosiveness 
which  may  be  set  off  by  trifling  stimulation.^"^ 
General  bodily  fatigue  results  in  a  general  deple-j 
tion  of  nervous  energy  and  by  diffusion  affects 
all  portions  of  the  organism.  Fatigue,  however,* 
may  be  localised  in  one  or  other  sphere  of  activ- 
ity. In  such  a  case  continued  activity  within  the 
sphere  will  give  rise  to  manifestations  of  fatigue 
much  like  those  of  general  fatigue. 

§  ii.  illustration 

1.  Organic. 

(a)   Literary. 

Naturally  enough  the  idea  occurred  to  me:  if  the 
indentations  on  paper  could  be  made  to  give  forth  again 
the  click  of  the  instrument,  why  could  not  the  vibrations 
of  a  diaphram  be  recorded  and  similarly  reproduced?  I 
rigged  up  an  instrument  hastily  and  pulled  a  strip  of  . 
paper  through  it,  at  the  same  time  shouting  'Hallo!' 
Then  the  paper  was  pulled  through  again,  my  friend 
Batchelor  and  I  listening  breathlessl}^  We  heard  a 
distinct  sound,  which  a  strong  imagination  might  have 

"Meumann,  Ernst,  Vorlesungen  zur  Einfiihrimg  in  die  Ex- 
perimentelle  Pddagogik,  Ch.  XII.  Burgerstein,  Leo,  und  Neto- 
litzky,  August,  Handbuch  der  Schulhygiene,  454-492.  O'Shea, 
M.  v..  Dynamic  Factors  in  Education,  Ch.  XIII.  Warner,  Fran- 
cis, The  Study  of  Children,  Ch.  VII. 


THE  PHYSIOLOGICAL  ASPECT        155 

translated  into  the  original  *Hallo.'  That  was  enough 
to  lead  me  to  further  experiment. — Edison  and  the 
phonograph  in  P.  G.  Hubert,  Inventors,  237. 

In  the  amphitheatre  were  men  who  had  raised  their 
arms  and  remained  in  that  posture.  Sweat  covered  the 
faces  of  others,  as  if  they  themselves  were  struggling 
with  the  beast.  In  the  Circus  nothing  was  heard  save 
the  sound  of  flame  in  the  lamps,  and  the  crackle  of  bits 
of  coal  as  they  dropped  from  the  torches.  Their  voices 
died  on  the  lips  of  the  spectators,  but  their  hearts  were 
beating  in  their  breasts  as  if  to  split  them.  It  seemed  to 
all  that  the  struggle  was  lasting  for  ages.  But  the  man 
and  the  beast  continued  on  in  their  monstrous  exertion; 
one  might  have  said  that  they  were  planted  in  the  earth. 
— Quo  VadiSy  Henry  Sienkiewicz,  Eng.  tr.  by  J  Curtin, 
499. 

(&)  Eooperimental, 

Catch  yourself  during  a  moment  of  intense  study. 
Note  difference  from  normal  breathing.  Note  the  res- 
piration of  others  during  profound  attention.  Count 
the  inspirations  and  expirations  for  a  set  time  and  com- 
pare with  the  normal. 

Place  the  finger  on  the  wrist  of  a  subject  and  feel  the 
pulse.  Tell  him  to  think  of  one  of  five  objects  before 
him.  Name  each  one,  one  at  a  time.  Feel  the  difference 
in  the  pulse  when  the  right  one  is  named.  Tell  the  sub- 
ject to  think  of  some  exciting  incident  in  his  life,  or  refer 
him  to  one.    Note  the  difference  in  the  pulse. 


156  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

If  laboratory  apparatus  is  accessible,  repeat  the  tests 
of  MacDougall,  McGamble,  Mentz,  Zoneif  and  Meu- 
mann,  or  others. 

2.  Sensory. 

(a)   Literary, 

Cyrus  opened  a  door  and  entered  as  it  were  an  enor- 
mous chamber,  but  low  and  dark,  for  the  light  came  in 
only  through  grated  openings  which  separated  it  from 
the  arena.  At  first  Vinicius  could  see  nothing ;  he  heard 
only  the  murmur  of  voices  in  the  room,  and  the  shouts  of 
people  in  the  amphitheatre.  But  after  a  time,  when  his 
eyes  had  grown  used  to  the  gloom,  he  saw  crowds  of 
strange  beings,  resembling  wolves  and  bears.  Those 
were  Christians  sewed  up  in  skins  of  beasts.— Qwo  Vadis, 
H.  Sienkiewicz,  421. 

Prithee,  see  there !  behold !  look !  lo !  how  say  you  ? 
Why,  what  care  I  ?    If  thou  canst  nod,  speak  too. 
If  charnel-houses  and  our  graves  must  send 
Those  that  we  bury  back,  our  monuments 
Shall  be  the  maws  of  kites.     {Ghost  vanishes) 

Macbeth,  III:iv. 

{h)  Experimental. 

Observe  the  size  of  the  pupil  of  the  eye  by  means  of 
a  mirror.  Move  slowly  towards  a  light  and  observe 
changes  in  size.  Move  slowly  away  from  the  light 
towards  a  darker  place,  and  note  changes  in  size. 

Hold  some  object,  as  a  pencil,  at  arm's  length  and  fix- 
ate some  point  on  it.    Mt)ve  it  slowly  in  the  direction  of 


THE  PHYSIOLOGICAL  ASPECT        157 

the  face  till  it  touches  the  nose.     Note  the  strain  of 
fixation. 

Observe  the  expression  of  a  nearsighted  pupil  who  is 
seated  too  far  from  the  blackboard.  Note  the  peculiar 
expression  of  the  eyes.  Compare  the  strained  look  with 
that  of  a  normal  child. 

Note  the  movements  of  the  head  when  one  is  listening 
intently  to  a  sound.  Observe  the  positions  of  individuals 
in  an  audience  who  are  attending  to  a  preacher,  a 
speaker,  an  actor,  etc.  Note  the  lapses  when  the  atten- 
tion is  not  held.  Note  the  changes  in  position  when 
some  more  stimulating  appeal  seems  to  be  made. 

Take  any  text  and  mark  letters  with  crosses,  circles, 
etc.,  about  one  inch  apart.  Vary  the  spaces  making 
them  three  quarters  of  an  inch,  an  inch  and  a  half,  etc. 
See  whether  or  not  the  eye  movements  are  aided.  Note 
the  effect  of  meaning  on  the  eye  pause.  Use  red  ink 
and  compare  its  efficacy  with  black  ink.^® 

3.    MOTOE. 

(a)   Literary, 

'France  and  Liege,  and  long  live  the  gallant  archer! 
We  will  live  and  die  with  him !' 

William  de  la  Marck's  eyes  sparkled,  and  he  grasped 
his  dagger  as  if  about  to  launch  it  at  the  heart  of  the 
audacious  speaker ;  but  glancing  his  eye  around,  he  read 
something  in  the  looks  of  his  soldiers,  which  even  he  was 
obliged  to  respect. — Quentin  Durwardy  Ch.  XXII. 

"  Hucy,  E.  B.,  Psych,  and  Fed.  of  Bead.,  176. 


158  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

The  fruit  was  standing  in  the  pantry,  which  by  a 
lattice  at  a  considerable  height  received  light  from  the 
kitchen.  One  day,  being  alone  in  the  house,  I  climbed 
up  to  see  these  precious  apples.  I  fetched  the  spit — 
tried  if  it  would  reach  them — it  was  too  short — I  length- 
ened it  with  a  small  one  which  was  used  for  game — my 
master  being  very  fond  of  hunting,  darted  at  them  sev- 
eral times  without  success  ;  at  length  was  more  fortunate ; 
being  transported  to  find  I  was  bringing  up  an  apple, 
I  drew  it  gently  to  the  lattice — was  going  to  seize  it 
when  (who  can  express  my  grief  and  astonishment!)  I 
found  it  would  not  pass  through — it  was  too  large. 
I  tried  every  expedient  to  accomplish  my  design,  sought 
supporters  to  keep  the  spits  in  the  same  position,  a 
knife  to  divide  the  apple,  and  a  lath  to  hold  it  with; 
at  length,  I  so  far  succeeded  as  to  effect  the  division, 
and  made  no  doubt  of  drawing  the  pieces  through; 
but  it  was  scarcely  separated,  (compassionate  reader, 
sympathise  with  my  affliction)  when  both  pieces  fell 
into  the  pantry.  The  next  day  (a  fine  opportunity 
offering)  I  renew  the  trial.  I  fasten  the  spits  together; 
get  on  the  stool;  take  aim;  am  just  going  to  dart  at 
my  prey — unfortunately  the  dragon  did  not  sleep;  the 
pantry  door  opens,  my  master  makes  his  appearance, 
and,  looking  up,  exclaims,  "Bravo!" — Confessions  of 
Rousseau,  Eng.  tr.,  p.  29. 


(fe)  EooperimentaL 

Keep  a  record  of  motor  diffusions  and  automatisms 
made  by  others.     Record  your  own  automatism.     Tell 


THE  PHYSIOLOGICAL  ASPECT        159 

what  activities  they  accompany.     Are  any  automatisms 
characteristic  ? 

Repeat  Jastrow's  experiment. 

Repeat  Campbell  and  Miinsterberg's  experiment. 

In  the  following  figure,  move  the  eye  from  a  to  h. 
How  does  the  figure  appear?  Move  the  eye  from  c  to  d. 
Is  there  any  difference  in  the  appearance  of  the  figure  ? 


.^Cy] 


^£^ 


\ZI7\ 


\ziy\ 


Fia.  XIX 

Close  your  eyes.  Try  to  picture  a  chariot  race, 
with  one  in  the  lead,  and  one  close  behind.  Note  the 
movements  of  the  horses,  the  driver,  and  the  wheels  of  the 
chariot.  Are  there  any  eye  movements  or  innervations? 
Is  there  any  tendency  to  move  the  eye  from  one  side  to 
the  other  in  picturing  the  chariot  in  the  rear?  Are 
there  any  other  innervations? 

Think  intensely  of  the  working  of  any  machine  with 
which  you  are  familiar.  Can  you  picture  the  motion 
of  rollers,  wheels,  levers,  etc.?  Close  your  eyes,  try  to 
imagine  yourself  working  at  it.  Do  you  feel  any  motor 
tendencies?     Localise  them.     Refer  them  to  the  mental 


160  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

picture.  Are  they  connected  with  any  verbal  images 
or  innervations?  To  what  extent  do  words  enter  in 
the  motor  process?  What  other  parts  of  the  body  are 
affected? 

Try  to  get  the  meaning  of  the  following: 
Since  $  (z)  is  uniform,  an  irreducible  infinity  of 
degree  n  for  ^  (z)  is  an  irreducible  infinity  of  degree 
n-\-l  for  $/  (z).  Moreover  $/  (z),  being  uniform,  has 
no  infinity  which  is  not  an  infinity  of  $  (z)  ;  thus  the 
order  of  $'  (z)  is  %  {n-{-l),  or  its  order  is  greater  than 
that  of  $  (z)  by  an  integer  which  represents  the  number 
of  distinct  irreducible  infinities  of  $  (2),  no  account 
being  taken  of  their  degree.  If,  then,  a  function  be 
of  the  order  m,  the  order  of  its  derivative  is  not  less 
than  ?w+l  and  is  not  greater  than  2m.  Forsyth,  A.  R., 
Theory  of  Functions  of  a  Complex  Variabley  258. 

Read  this  over  carefully.  Try  to  get  the  connection. 
Do  you  feel  any  strain  ?  Localise  it.  Are  there  any  motor 
tendencies?    Is  there  any  articulatory  accompaniment? 


4.  Fatigue. 

(a)   Literary, 

How  deadly  tired  I  was  in  those  days  I  do  not  thi 
I  myself  knew  until  I  went  to  Boston  one  evening 
help  discuss  sweating  at  the  Institute  of  Technology. 
I  had  an  hour  to  spare,  and  went  around  into  Beacon 
Street  to  call  upon  a  friend.  I  walked  mechanically  up 
the  stoop  and  rang  the  bell.  My  friend  was  not  in, 
said  the  servant  who  came  to  the  door.     Who  should  she 


rv.  J 


THE  PHYSIOLOGICAL  ASPECT        161 

say  called?  I  stood  and  looked  at  her  like  a  fool;  I 
had  forgotten  my  name.  .  .  .  Until  I  actually  read 
my  name  on  my  card  it  was  as  utterly  gone  as  if  I  had 
never  heard  it. — Riis,  J.  A.,  The  Making  of  an 
American,  306. 

For  eight  years  I  taught  in  public  elementary  day 
schools  in  a  cotton  town,  and  in  all  the  schools  in  which 
I  was  a  teacher,  there  was  a  great  proportion  of  factory 
children — I  have  seen  them  fall  asleep  over  their  lesson- 
books  or  tasks,  after  they  have  been  in  the  factory  all 
the  morning  (six  hours). — Clarke,  A.,  The  Effects  of  the 
Factory  System,  97. 

(6)   Experimental, 

Mark  a's  for  an  hour  in  the  morning,  and  for  an  hour 
when  you  are  tired,  late  at  night,  after  heavy  work, 
etc.    Note  the  difference  in  the  amount  and  in  the  error. 

Note  the  feeling  which  accompanies  fatigue.  Localise 
it  if  possible.  Try  to  intensify  the  feeling  by  straining 
the  muscles  in  the  area  involved,  by  wrinkling  the  fore- 
head intensely,  etc. 

Can  you  distinguish  drowsiness  from  fatigue,  or  lack 
of  interest,  or  unwillingness  to  do  the  work,  from  fatigue  ? 
What  conditions  operate  in  fatigue  which  are  not  present 
in  the  other  states? 

§  III.  DEVELOPMENT 

Of  the  physiological  constituents  of  the  at- 
tentive process  the  organic  and  the  sensory  are 

more  or  less  instinctive  and  so  do  not  involve 
11 


162  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

much  development.  The  motor,  on  the  other  \ 
hand,  goes  through  a  number  of  stages  of  de- y 
velopment. 

1.  Motor.  Movements  may  be  (1)  reflex,  or 
instinctive,  (2)  ideomotor,  or  (3)  voluntary. 

(a)  Instinctive,  In  instinctive  or  primitive 
attention  a  stimulus  calls  forth  a  motor  response 
without  further  thought  on  the  part  of  the  indi- 
vidual. The  sensorimotor  process  is  realised 
automatically  by  virtue  of  the  inherent  nature 
of  the  nervous  system.  A  reflex  difi'ers  from 
an  instinctive  movement  in  that  the  former  is 
simple  in  character  and  usually  consists  of  a 
single  movement,  as,  the  winking  of  an  eyelash, 
or  sneezing.  An  instinct,  however,  consists  of  a 
series  of  coordinated  movements  which  involve 
a  larger  area.  A  sudden  sound,  for  example, 
may  cause  a  child  to  turn,  lift  its  hands,  and  run 
without.  The  whole  process  is  realised  in  a 
purely  automatic  manner.^^ 

(6)  Ideomotor,  Such  instinctive  movements 
leave  motor  traces  which  facilitate  further  action 
and  control.  \  Moreover,  the  movements  them- 

"See  Morgan,  t.  Lloyd,  Habit  and  Instinct.  Kirkpatrick, 
E.  A.,  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study.  Hobhouse,  L.  T.,  Mind  in 
Evolution^  Chs.  Ill,  IV.  Darwin,  C,  The  Descent  of  Man,  Chs. 
II,  III.  Loeb,  J.,  Comp.  Phys.  of  the  Br.  and  Comp.  Psych., 
Ch.  XIII.  Baldwin,  J.  M.,  Development  and  Evolution,  Chs. 
V,  VI.    James,  W.,  Princ.  of  Psych.,  Ch.  XXIV. 


I 


THE  PHYSIOLOGICAL  ASPECT        163 

selves  become  connected  in  a  more  or  less  defi- 
nite manner  with  situations  both  real  and  ideal. 
The  instinctive  responses  become  more  accurate 
and  refined.^^  Any  unnecessary  movement;? 
which  do  not  give  pleasure  or  satisfaction  fall 
away  through  a  lack  of  such  stimuli  as  impel 
repetition.  The  selected  responses  on  the  other 
hand  become  closely  bound  with  impressions, 
images,  and  ideas.  When  attention  is  directed 
to  a  situation  which  is  more  familiar,  the  mere 
impression  or  idea  results  in  a  series  of  coordi- 
nated movements  which  effect  a  definite  purpose 
with  comparatively  little  waste.  |  In  such  a  case 
the  action  is  ideomotor.  No  consciousness  of 
the  act  as  such  is  involved.  Simply  the  situation 
alone,  as  impression,  image,  or  what  not,  excites 
proper  motor  coordination  and  control,  i  Com- 
mon examples  are  those  situations  in  which  re- 
vived series  of  images  call  forth  a  series  of 
unconscious  acts  on  our  part.  In  attending  to 
some  object,  for  instance,  we  unconsciously  place 
it  in  a  certain  position,  get  material  to  fix  it,  if 
necessary,  and  the  like.  In  attention  to  some 
ideal  situation,  as  the  thought  of  a  book,  or  the 
image  of  a  picture,  one  similarly  feels  impelled 

^  See  Thorndike,  E.  L.,  Animal  Intelligence. 


164  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

to  go  for  the  book,  look  at  the  picture,  ask  for  it, 
and  so  on.^^ 

(c)  Voluntary,  When  there  is  conscious 
selection  of  a  movement,  when  an  idea  or  image 
strongly  impels  action  as  preferential  to  other 
possible  actions,  when  conscious  choice  is  involved, 
the  control  is  voluntary.  fOn  the  ideal  side  there 
are  usually  deliberation  and  selection  as  already 
explained.  On  the  motor  side  there  is  either  an 
image  of  some  action  or  a  series  of  motor  inner- 
vations and  tendencies  due  to  the  dominance  of 
an  image  or  idea.  When  the  situation  to  be 
realised  is  remote,  the  motor  control  becomes 
centred  in  a  series  of  means.  When  the  means 
have  been  worked  out  ideally  and  a  course  of 
action  has  been  selected,  the  process  of  realisa- 
tion goes  ahead  almost  automatically.  The 
situation  in  question  is  fixated  and  the  various 
aspects  call  forth  motor  responses  of  the  kind 
which  have  been  selected.  In  the  choice  of  any 
series  of  actions,  the  general  tendency  and  direc- 
tion alone  seem  to  be  involved.  Any  further 
amplification  and  refinement  become  effected 
only  when  the  actual  process  of  control  is  under 
way.     Further  deliberation  and  choice  may  at 

^  James,  W.,  Princ,  Ch.  XXVI.     Baldwin,  J.  M.,  Ment.  Dev., 
Pt.  III. 


THE  PHYSIOLOGICAL  ASPECT        165 

time  halt  the  process  of  control  whenever  such 
amplification  becomes  necessary.  One  who  is 
seeking  means  to  improve  his  work,  who  is  con- 
fronted with  a  new  problem,  who  is  placed  in  a 
predicament,  and  the  like,  must  select  ways  and 
means,  try  them,  correct  his  errors,  think  out  new 
plans,  apply  them,  compare  the  results  with 
previous  efforts,  and  the  like.  The  sensory  and 
the  motor  intermingle,  one  reinforcing  the 
other."" 

In  the  order  of  acquisition,  random  move- 
ments precede  the  more  coordinated  and  these 
are  followed  by  selected  and  serial  adjustments. 
In  pathological  conditions,  however,  a  reverse 
order  seems  to  be  emphasised.  The  voluntary 
coordinations,  such  as  are  found  in  speaking  and 
writing,  are  lost  first.  Then  come  such  stages 
as  partial  ataxia,  rhythmic  deafness,  and  general 
ataxia. 

The  general  order  of  sensorimotor  develop- 
ment is  indicated  in  the  following  table  :"^ 

^  See  Woodworth,  R.  S.,  'The  Accuracy  of  a  Voluntary  Move- 
ment,' Psych.  Rev.,  Mon.  8up.,  3:Pts.  VII,  VIII.  Munsterberg, 
H.,  Grundziige  der  Psychologic,  l:Ch.  XV.  Stout,  G.  F.,  Man, 
of  Psych.,  Bk.  IV,  Ch.  X. 

=3  Baldwin,  J.  M.,  Ment.  Dev.,  Third  ed.,  390. 


166 


ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 


Order  of  Acquisition 

f  Hearing  of 
sounds 
Random  and  in- 
1.    Preimita-        herited  move- 
..  I      ments 

'^*^^*^^^^*-i  Movements    co- 
tion  ordinated  by 

simple  sugges- 
tion, pleasure 
and  pain,  etc. 


Simple 
imitative 
suggestion 


3.    Persistent 
imitation 


'Recognition  of 
objects 

Words  and 
tunes 

Imperfect   artic- 
ulation 

Slight  power   of 
song 

Understanding 
of  speech 

Use  of  objects, 
etc. 

Voluntary   co- 
ordination of 
movements : 
speaking 
writing 
music  per- 
forming 

Visual  interpre- 
tation of  signs 
,     and  reading       v 

Tabi-E 


Order  of  Loss 
Cortical  deaftiess  * 
Motor  aphasia 


General  ataxia 


Object  blindness 
Verbal  deafness 
Rhythmic  deaf- 
ness 
Partial  ataxia 
Sensory  aphasia 
Sensory 

agraphia 
Motor  amusia 

Verbal  amnesia 

Apraxia,  psychic 
blindness,  etc. 

Amnesic  aphasia 
Amnesic 

agraphia 
Amnesic  amusia 


Alexia 


XL 


►     Dyslalia    3 


Dysphasis     2 


Dyslogia    1 


§  IV.  EXPLANATION 

1.  Organic.  The  changes  in  respiration 
which  form  a  part  of  the  attentive  process  are 
due  in  part  to  the  localisation  of  control  and  to 
the  inhibition  thereby  necessary.  Those  parts  of 
the  organism  which  are  not  called  into  play  need 
not  function  so  vigorously,  and  so  do  not  necessi- 


THE  PHYSIOLOGICAL  ASPECT        167 

tate  the  usual  respiration.  This  is  especially  true 
in  the  case  of  mental  application  and  in  many  of 
the  laboratory  tests  which  involve  visual  fixation, 
tactile  reaction,  and  the  like.  Moreover,  breath- 
ing may,  by  becoming  too  prominent,  form  a 
center  of  attention  in  itself  or  interfere  with  con- 
centration to  other  aspects  of  the  situation. 
Vasoconstriction,  changes  in  pulse,  etc.,  like 
other  biological  aspects  can  not  yet  be  fully  ex- 
plained. With  respect  to  attention,  however,  it 
is  highly  probable  that  such  changes  are  neces- 
sary whenever  effort  becomes  localised.  The 
general  tonicity  of  the  system  loses  its  more  oi 
less  uniform  character  and  becomes  emphasised 
in  those  portions  of  the  organism  which  are 
called  actively  into  play.  Increased  demands  by 
one  part  of  the  system  necessitate  some  deple- 
tion in  other  parts.  This  is  probably  effected  by 
vasoconstriction  and  other  changes. 

2.  Sensory.  \The  function  of  the  sensory 
adjustments  in  the  process  of  attention  is  the 
fixation  of  the  situation  in  the  field  of  clearness 
and  distinctness.\  The  adaptations  and  instinct- 
ive changes  in  the  end  organs  facilitate  the 
reception  of  impressions  while  the  motor  accom- 
modations  and  movements  serve  to  select  aspects 
H    of  the  given  field  and  to  bring  them  out  more 

I 


168  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

distinctly  and  clearly.  When  such  fixation  is 
accomplished  more  accurate  and  refined  control 
becomes  possible. 

3.  Motor.  Motor  adjustments  and  attitudes 
are  essential  in  attention,  not  only  to  give  greater 
distinctness  and  clearness,  but,  in  more  ideal\ 
processes,  to  indicate  meaning  and  direction  to 
the  ideas  and  images  which  arise.\  The  function 
of  the  motor  attitude  in  meaning  tends  to  be 
overlooked  because  it  is  so  closely  connected  with 
the  impression  or  image,  and  because  it  often 
exists  only  as  a  tendency.  But  without  the 
motor  attitude  the  visual  or  other  image  or  im- 
pression would  have  little  distinctive  meaning. 
Visual  differences  aid  in  reviving  such  character- 
istic motor  tendencies,  but  in  themselves  are  no 
guarantee  for  any  specific  signification.  This 
is  shown  in  the  early  stages  of  a  child's  develop- 
ment and  in  pathological  cases  of  apraxia. 

The  fact  that  the  child  emphasises  use  and 
motor  response  in  his  definitions  leads  one  to 
attribute  the  meaning  and  signification  of  ob- 
jects and  words  to  motor  attitudes  and  tenden- 
cies. In  a  Boy's  Dictionary  of  215  words 
compiled  by  F.  E.  Wolff,  the  following  defini- 
tions are  given  :^^ 

2*  See  Chamberlain,  A.  F.,  The  Child,  146. 


THE  PHYSIOLOGICAL  ASPECT        169 

Kiss  IS  if  you  hug  and  kiss  somebody. 
Mast  is  what  holds  the  sail  on  top  of  a  ship. 
Nail  is  something  to  put  things  together. 
Quarrel  is  if  you  begin  a  little  fight. 
Ring  is  what  you  wear  on  your  finger. 

Binet  obtained  a  similar  series  as  shown  in  the 
following  :^^ 

A  knife  is  something  which  cuts. 

Water  is  something  to  drink. 

A  hat  is  something  to  put  on  the  head. 

A  box  is  to  put  things  into. 

A  piece  of  sugar  is  to  eat. 

It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  Webster  in  his 
Dictionary  emphasises  use  and  function  to  al- 
most the  same  extent  as  do  children.^^ 

Even  in  adult  consciousness  there  seems  to  be 
nothing  inherent  in  a  visual  situation  as  such 
which  gives  it  a  distinctive  meaning.    Why  one 
object  should  be  called  Tie/  and  eaten,  and  an-, 
other  *Cover,'  and  placed  on  a  bowl  is  not  evident  \ 
from  the  appearance  of  each,  in  itself.    Only  by ' 
a  process  of  motor  experience  does  each  acquire  \ 
a  meaning.     Similarly,  *Come,'  and  *Go'  have  ^ 
nothing  in  them  as  mere  sounds  to  indicate  ac- 
tions peculiar  to  each.    Sweet  points  out  the  fact 

'^'^  Binet,  Alfred,  'Perceptions  d'Enfants,'  Rev.  Phil,  30:582-611. 
^^See   Barnes,   *A    Study   of   Children's    Interests,'    Studies   in 
Education,  Ed.  by  Earl  Barnes.  / 


170  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

that  for  some  Germans  the  sound  *het,'  stands 
for  'head,'  *hat,'  and  'had.'  Meaning  in  each  of 
these  three  eases  can  not  be  due  to  the  sound  as 
such  but  must  be  accompanied  in  part  by  the 
motor  attitude.  In  apraxia  a  loss  of  meaning  is 
seen  by  the  confusion  which  arises  when  a  patient 
seeks  to  use  objects.  The  visual  situation  is 
present  but  it  seems  to  have  no  special  significa- 
tion for  the  patient.  One  object  is  used  for 
another. 

The  patient  will  put  his  breeches  on  one  shoulder  and 
his  hat  upon  the  other,  will  bite  into  the  soap  and  lay 
his  shoes  on  the  table,  or  take  his  food  into  his  hand 
and  throw  it  down  again,  not  knowing  what  to  do  with 
it,  etc."'' 

The  diffusions  and  innervations  which  are  pres- 
ent in  attention  to   ideas   or  images   probably 
serve  to  give  meaning  to  the  otherwise  barren 
representations.    By  giving  meaning,  such  motor  I 
attitudes  serve  to  give  direction  and  associative  \ 
impulsion,  for  without  meaning,  one  series  of 
ideas  would  do  just  as  well  as  another.    Added  \ 
vividness  likewise  results  because  of  the  motor 
attitude. 

In  processes  of  deliberation  which  result  in 
decision  but  no  immediate  action,  it  is  the  motor 

'^  James,  W.,  Princ,  1:52. 


THE  PHYSIOLOGICAL  ASPECT        171 

attitude  which  determines  selection  and  choice. 
Complete  reaction  may  be  unnecessary  to  decide 
whether  or  not  one  series  of  ideas  or  the  other 
will  result  in  satisfaction  or  pleasure,  and  the 
motor  attitude  takes  its  place.  According  as 
experience  is  more  or  less  thorough  and  extensive 
will  such  attitude  prove  true.  When  an  attitude 
is  misleading,  we  call  the  judgment  or  the  deci- 
sion false,  Le,,  if  the  attitude  were  fully  realised, 
the  actual  manipulation  and  control  would  not 
effect  what  the  attitude  signified.  None  the  less, 
whether  right  or  wrong,  the  attitude  is  the  de- 
termining factor  in  such  ideal  deliberation.  The , 
motor  attitude  becomes  especially  prominent  in! 
cases  of  conflict.  When  the  smooth  flow  of 
thought,  or  the  even  rhythm  of  reading  is  blocked 
by  a  strange  idea  or  expression  which  interferes 
with  further  interpretation  and  appreciation,  a 
disturbance  arises  which  manifests  itself  in  motor 
expression  of  some  sort.  Such  excitement  may 
become  extremely  marked.  It  may  develop  into 
actual  movement,  or  it  may  end  in  explosive 

.  no 

expression. 

4.  Fatigue.  In  the  metabolic  changes  due  to 
sensorimotor  activity  waste  products  are  found. 
In  muscular  work  it  has  been  established  that 

^  See  Sidis,  Boris,  Psychopathological  Researches,  Ch.  VI. 


172  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

CO2  is  generated  from  the  oxidisation  of  some 
of  carbon  constituents  of  the  muscle.  The 
glycogen  gradually  disappears.  Sarcolactic  acid 
likewise  accumulates.^^  When  there  is  an  excess 
of  sarcolactic  acid  and  acid  potassium  phosphate 
in  the  muscle  it  loses  its  irritability  and  contract- 
ility. It  is  less  easily  stimulated.  It  responds 
less  easily  in  an  accurate  and  determinate  man- 
ner, in  other  words,  it  is  physiologically  fatigued. 
If  the  fatigue  becomes  too  great  there  may  fol- 
low a  total  lack  of  response  to  stimulation.  It 
is  evident  that  as  fast  as  waste  products  are 
formed  the  muscle  loses  in  material  by  this  pro- 
cess of  decomposition.  This  also  tends  to  inter- 
fere with  the  muscle  response. 

The  location  of  the  physiological  effect  of 
fatigue  is  not  in  the  muscle  directly.  By  experi- 
ment fatigue  has  been  found  to  operate  in  the" 
motor  plates.  If,  for  example,  one  voluntarily 
lifts  a  weight  or  pulls  a  spring  with  the  finger 
till  fatigue  prevents  further  response  by  such 
central  stimulation,  the  finger  will  still  respond 
to  direct  electrical  stimulation,  i.e.,  the  muscle 
will  contract  in  response  to  the  electric  stimula- 
tion. As  the  nerve  fibre  can  not  be  perceptibly 
fatigued,  only  the  motor  end  plates  remain  as. 

»  HoweU,  W.  H.,  Phys,,  Ch.  II. 


THE  PHYSIOLOGICAL  ASPECT        173 

the  seat  of  fatigue.  So,  too,  if  a  nerve  is  elec- 
trically stimulated  till  no  further  muscle  re- 
sponse is  possible,  the  muscle  will  respond  when 
directly  stimulated.  By  elimination,  the  end 
plates  remain.^^  Finally,  if  a  muscle  is  placed 
in  a  glass  of  curare,  no  contraction  will  be 
effected  if  the  nerve  is  stimulated,  while  direc- 
tion stimulation  of  the  muscle  will  still  be  effect- 
ive. In  this  case  the  poison  acts  on  the  motor  [ 
end  plates.^^ 

The  changes  which  go  on  in  the  cortex  are  not 
so  clearly  known.  Various  facts,  however,  leaa 
one  to  suppose  that  metabolic  changes  of  some 
kind  go  on  in  the  brain.  Mosso,  for  example, 
found  an  increase  in  temperature  in  the  brain 
correspondent  with  heightened  mental  activity. 
Since  heat  is  the  result  of  chemical  change  it  is 
probable  that  some  metabolism  goes  on  in  such 
a  case.  Hodge  showed  that  in  the  case  of  the 
sparrow  the  spinal  ganglion  cells  were  shrunken 
at  the  end  of  the  day  and  fuller  after  a  night's 
rest.  Waller  offers  the  following  series  of  tests : 
If  the  gastrocnemius  or  leg  muscle  of  a  frog  is 
excited  by  electric  stimulation  of  the  brain  and 

•"Waller,  A.  D.,  Phys.,  Ch.  X. 

"  Practical  Physiology,  by  A.  P.  Beddard,  L.  Hill,  J.  S.  Edkins, 
and  J.  J.  R.  Macleod,  Ch.  IX. 


174  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

bulb  till  it  no  longer  responds,  it  can  still  be 
excited  by  direct  stimulation  of  the  sciatic  nerve. 
When  such  stimulation  fails  to  excite  response, 
a  third  series  of  contractions  can  be  eff ecte;^  by 
means  of  direct  excitation  of  the  muscle.  The 
fatigue  in  the  first  instance  is  probably  condi- 
tioned by  cerebral  factors.  Whether  there  is  a 
less  ready  response  within  the  cell  itself,  or 
whether  the  seat  lies  in  the  connections  between 
the  cell  and  the  neurons,  or  what  the  process  is, 
has  not  been  determined.  Connected  with  the 
whole  process  is  probably  the  devitalised  condi- 
tion of  the  blood  through  the  fatigue  by- 
products. 

The  external  conditions  which  produce  fatigue 
are  well  known.  Any  thing  which  gives  rise  to 
the  intrinsic  conditions  discussed  in  the  above 
paragraph  will  cause  fatigue.  Excessive  stimula-' 
tion  of  some  organ,  muscle,  etc.,  without  intervals 
for  recuperation  will  bring  about  fatigue.  A 
lack  of  rest  will  have  a  similar  effect.  Pre- 
disposing conditions  are  a  lack  of  proper  nour- 
ishment, insufficient  oxygination  of  the  blood,  or 
devitalisation  through  sickness,  poison,  shock, 
etc  Such  conditions  will  render  normal  exer- 
tions fatiguing. 

In  mental  application  it  might  seem  that  the 


THE  PHYSIOLOGICAL  ASPECT        175 

muscles  are  not  called  into  any  activity  of  ac- 
count. Simple  inhibition  of  movement,  however, 
is  a  considerable  strain  and  calls  the  muscles  into 
play  just  as  does  more  expressive  action. ^^  The 
more  active  innervations  and  motor  attitudes, 
their  constant  changing  and  shifting  as  the 
series  of  ideas  change,  the  motor  diffusions,  and 
the  like  also  deplete  motor  energy  to  a  consider- 
able extent. 

^  Yale  Psych.  Stud.,  Psych.  Rev.,  Mon.  Sup.,  7:141-184,  *Analy- 
sis  of  Reaction  Movements,'  by  C.  H.  Judd,  C.  N.  McAllister,  and 
W.  M.  Steele. 


CHAPTER  V 

RECAPITULATION 
§  I.  DEFINITION  OF  ATTENTION 

Attention  must  be  considered  from  two  points 
of  view,  (1)  the  sensory  or  ideal  and  (2)  the 
motor  or  physiological.  Without  the  other, 
either  is  more  or  less  empty  and  meaningless. 
The  result  of  the  sensorimotor  control  is  dis- 
tinctness and  clearness  within  the  given  field. 
Considering  these  aspects,  we  may  define  atten- 
tion thus : 

Attention  is  a  process  of  sensorimotor 
control  which  tends  to  increase  the  clear- 
ness and  distinctness  of  the  given  field. 

§  II.  OUTLINE  OF  ASPECTS 

We  have  then  two  aspects  of  attention,  the 
subjective  and  the  objective.  The  subjective 
aspect  includes  the  sensory  (ideal)  and  the  motor 
(physiological)  processes.  The  objective  aspect 
includes  both  qualitative  and  quantitative 
changes.  Under  the  former  we  have  clearness 
and  distinctness.  Under  the  latter  we  have  the 
size  of  the  field  of  attention,  the  fluctuation  of 
minimal  stimuli,  and  facilitation  or  arrest  of  the 

176 


RECAPITULATION 


177 


parts  of  the  field  in  their  temporal  or  spatial 
relations.    In  outline  form  the  subjective  process 
and  the  objective  effects  may  be  given  as  follows: 
Subjective  Objective 


Qualitative 
Clearness 
Distinctness 
Persistence 

Quantitative 
Fluctuation 
Unity 
Facilitation 
Arrest 


Motor  (physiological) 
Organic 
Respiration 
Vasoconstriction 
Circulation 
Sensory 

Accommodation 
Fixation 
Motor 
Diffusion 
Innervation 
Full  control 
Sensory  (ideal) 
Fusion,  etc. 
Free  association 
Deliberation 

§  III.  Outline  of  Stages 
The  stages  of  attention  may  be  outlined  as 
follows : 


Primary 

Sense  stimulation 
Instinctive      motor      re- 
sponse with  waste 
Lack  of  definite  direct- 
ion     (residual     bases 
formed) 
12 


Assimilative 

Sense    stimulation    plus 

ideal  reinforcement 
Motor    control    through 
unconscious  action  and 
habit 
Direction    still    external 


178  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

Secondary 

Definite  guidance  by  images  or  ideas 
Construction    of    a    means    cognised   as    such 
Persistence  of  the  means  by  association  with 

an  end 
Direction  internal 

§  IV.  Outline  of  Conditions 
Objective  conditions  which  tend  to  impel  at- 
tention are: 

Difference 
Quality 
Intensity 
(Extensity) 
Change 
Quality 
Intensity 
(Extensity) 
Pleasure-pain 
Time 

Subjective  conditions  which  facilitate  persist- 
ence of  attention  are : 

Preadjustment 

Reinforcement 

Practice 

Pause  (rest)  ] 

Natural  mtality 

Mental  ability^ 

*  Compare  the  discussions  in:  Pillsbuiy,  W.  B.,  Attention. 
Titchener,  E.  B.,  The  Psychology  of  Feeling  and  Attention. 
Roerich,  Edouard,  L' Attention  Spontan^e  et  Voluntaire.    Nayrac, 


i 


KECAPITULATION  179 

Jean-Paul,  Physiologie  et  Psychologie  de  V Attention.  Serol,  M., 
^Analyse  de  1' Attention,'  Bev.  de  Phil,  7:597-620  (Rev.  in  Psych. 
Bui,  3:140-143).  McDougall,  W.,  *The  Physiological  Factors  of 
the  Attention-Process,'  Mind,  11:316-351,  12:289-302,  and  473-488. 
Kohn,  H.  E.,  *Zur  Theorie  de  Aufmerksamkeit,'  Abhand.  z.  Phil 
u.  ihrer  Gesch.,  5.  Shand,  A.  F.,  *An  Analysis  of  Attention,' 
Mind,  3:449-473,  and  'Attention  and  WiU,'  Mind,  4:450-471. 
Bradley,  F.  H.,  *On  Active  Attention,'  Mind,  11:1-30,  and  'Is 
There  Any  Special  Activity  of  Attention?'  Mind,  11:305-323. 
Calkins,  M.  W„  An  Int,  to  Psych,,  'Appendix,'  Sect.  VII. 


PART  II 
INTEREST 


Part  II 
Interest 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  MOTOR  ASPECT  OF  INTEREST 

§  I.  DESCRIPTION 

On  its  motor  side,  interest  is  essentially  a 
striving,  a  conation,  an  appetition,  a  tendency 
towards  something.  An  attitude  is  taken  towards 
a  situation,  an  impulsion  is  felt,  a  desire  to  come 
into  closer  relationship  with  an  object  is  present. 
Between  the  subject  and  the  object  there  is  an 
unrealised  condition  felt  in  its  motor  aspect  as 
a  strain,  a  stress,  a  moment  of  tendency  towards 
further  control.  One  is  interested,  for  example, 
in  some  object  in  a  show  window,  a  tennis  racket, 
book,  or  what  not.  One  feels,  or  has,  or  takes  an 
interest  in  the  object.  The  'feel'  of  the  interest, 
its  existence  as  a  psychological  fact  is  dependent 
upon  the  motor  attitude  which  the  object  in  ques- 
tion calls  forth.  Motor  tendencies  or  incipient 
movements  are  excited  by  the  object,  a  general 
attitude  towards  it  is  taken,  a  certain  anticipa- 
tion is  aroused.    This  attitude  may  be  felt  as  a 

183 


184  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

general  restlessness,  a  motor  'set,'  or  at  times  as 
a  general  thrill.  If  further  contact  with  the 
stimulating  object  is  possible,  this  motor  atti- 
tude may  become  more  explicit  in  a  series  of 
actual  movements  and  manipulations.  The  in- 
terest which  a  child  shows  for  a  toy  emphasises 
this  motor  aspect.  With  young  children  who 
have  less  control  over  their  actions  there  are 
movements  of  the  hands,  face  and  body.  Some- 
times there  are  little  cries  of  glee  or  other  expres- 
sions to  indicate  the  direction  which  the  interest 
has  taken.  When  the  object  is  under  the  child's 
control  the  motor  tendencies  become  more  or  less 
manifest  in  a  number  of  actions,  manipulations, 
and  attempts  at  control  of  the  object. 

Where  interest  is  felt  in  some  ideal  situation, 
as  in  a  story,  a  problem,  etc.,  the  motor  tenden- 
cies are  not  so  evident.  Over  and  above  the  atti- 
tude which  gives  meaning  to  the  situation  in  the 
center  of  attention  are  those  tendencies  which 
impel  one  to  hurry  on  to  the  end,  to  reach  the 
climax,  to  work  out  the  solution,  to  facilitate 
fuller  control  of  the  object  in  question,  and  the 
like.  Sometimes  the  motor  attitude  becomes  so 
strong  that  it  overrides  normal  realisation  and 
seeks  to  avoid  the  more  gradual  control  which 
will  lead  to  the  desired  end.    The  individual  will 


MOTOR  ASPECT  OF  INTEREST    185 

then  turn  to  the  end  of  the  book  to  see  how  the 
story  ends,  or  will  go  to  a  *Key'  to  find  the  solu- 
tion of  his  problem,  or  will  seek  others  to  get 
further  information  and  help. 

The  motor  aspect  of  interest  is  essentially  tele- 
ological,  end-seeking.  It  points  ahead  and  to 
the  future.  One  feels  interest  in  a  situation  in 
that  the  situation  excites  innervations  and  ten- 
dencies, which,  when  more  fully  realised,  will 
bring  about  a  condition  of  pleasure,  ease,  satis- 
faction, and  the  like.  A  child  has  an  interest 
in  a  toy,  for  example,  and  realises  that  interest 
when  his  manipulations  and  control  bring  about 
a  condition  of  rest,  ease,  satisfaction,  or  pleasure. 
In  so  far  as  the  future  moment  is  realised  will 
the  interest  continue.  Should  there  be  a  check 
or  disappointment,  the  interest  will  wane.  Thus, 
the  child  may  find  the  toy  not  to  his  liking,  or 
perhaps  painful  and  dissatisfying.  His  interest 
in  it  will  then  be  less  intense  upon  another  occa- 
sion. Even  if  the  object  itself  is  only  an  indirect 
means  to  the  realisation  of  a  future  moment,  it 
will,  on  that  account,  impel  interest,  and  excite 
tendencies  towards  fuller  control.  A  factory 
girl,  for  example,  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  any 
interest  in  the  rolling  of  cigars,  as  such.  But  in 
so  far  as  she  gets  twenty  five  cents  a  hundred, 


186  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

will  her  interest  hold  in  the  process  to  the  extent 
of  making  five  or  six  hundred  a  day.  The  pros- 
pective situation  impels  control  of  present  con- 
ditions, even  though  these  conditions  are  more 
or  less  disagreeable. 

Interest,  as  thus  described,  is  not  a  feeling  of 
pleasure,  ease,  satisfaction,  quiescence,  or  what 
not.  In  themselves,  such  feelings  are  passive 
and  lack  the  dynamic  aspect  characteristic  of 
interest.  Interest  is  dynamic,  it  points  ahead, 
it  is  a  form  of  striving,  of  motor  impulsion,  and 
is  felt  as  a  conation  or  motor  attitude.  Feeling 
of  pleasure,  satisfaction,  etc.,  is  of  a  more  passive 
nature.  As  felt  it  lies  enmeshed  in  the  present. 
One  who  is  enjoying  the  taste  of  fruit,  or  the 
fragrance  of  a  flower,  or  the  esthetic  satisfaction 
arising  from  the  contemplation  of  a  painting  or 
a  statue,  feels  pleasure,  and  this  pleasure  exists 
in  the  present.  One  may  lean  back,  as  it  were, 
and  absorb  it.  If  such  satisfaction  or  pleasure, 
however,  is  not  present,  and  is  possible  only 
through  control  of  some  situation  in  the  center 
of  attention,  an  interest  in  the  situation  will  ex- 
ist and  will  rouse  motor  attitudes  and  tendencies. 
These  tendencies  are  felt  as  interest  and  guide 
further  manipulation.  One  may,  for  example, 
see  a  picture  for  sale,  and  be  excited  to  the  extent 


MOTOR  ASPECT  OF  INTEREST    187 

of  asking  the  price  of  it,  and  of  making  ar- 
rangements to  buy  it.  One  does  not  then  lean 
back,  but  becomes  active,  or  feels  impelled  so 
to  do.i 

In  so  far  as  interest  points  ahead,  it  has  some 
more  or  less  definite  object  in  view.  Aspects  of 
a  situation  come  to  have  a  value  to  the  individual 
to  a  great  extent  because  of  the  tendencies  and 
attitudes  which  they  are  able  to  arouse.  This 
psychological  phase  of  interest  must  be  consid- 
ered in  any  economic  treatment  of  value.  No 
doubt  the  amount  of  labor  which  is  put  into 
an  object  will  condition,  in  part,  the  value  which 
such  an  object  possesses.  So,  too,  will  the 
amount  of  the  material  available,  the  supply  of 
articles  at  hand,  and  the  like,  affect  value.    An 

^Compare  the  descriptions  of  interest  in:  Volkmann,  Wilhelm, 
Lehrbuch  der  Psychologie,  2:206,  207.  Stump f,  Carl,  Tonpsy- 
chologie,  1:68,  69,  and  2:279-280.  Baldwin,  J.  M.,  Handbook  of 
Psychology,  'Feeling  and  Will,'  139-146,  and  Ch.  VII.  Sully,  J., 
The  Human  Mind,  1:163.  Stout,  G.  F.,  Analytic  Psychology, 
1:224-225,  and  Bk.  II,  Ch.  III.  Calkins,  M.  W.,  Introduction  to 
Psychology,  137,  140,  488.  Titchener,  E.  B.,  The  Psychology  of 
Feeling  and  Attention,  and  Out.  of  Psych.,  (New  revision). 
Dewey,  J.,  'Interest  as  Related  to  Will,'  Sec.  Sup.  to  the  Her. 
Yearbook,  1903.  Related  treatments  from  the  standpoint  of 
'value'  will  be  found  in:  Ehrenfels,  Christian  von.  System  der 
Werttheorie,  1,  'Psychologie  des  Begehrens.'  Kriebig,  Josef 
Clemens,  Psychologische  Orundlegung  eines  Systems  der  Wert- 
theorie.  Meinong,  Alexius  von,  Psychologischethische  Untersuch- 
ungen  zur  Werttheorie.  Miinsterberg,  H.,  Philosophic  der  Werte, 
Lipps,  Theodor,  Vom  Fiihlen,  W alien  und  Denken, 


188  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

important  aspect,  however,  in  the  determination 
of  the  value  of  an  object,  is  the  motor  attitude 
which  it  is  able  to  arouse,  the  tendencies  to  pos- 
sess it  which  the  object  can  excite,  in  short,  the 
interest  which  it  possesses  for  the  consumer.^ 

According  to  the  relation  in  which  an  interest- 
exciting  situation  stands  to  the  individual,  we 
may,  on  the  motor  side,  distinguish  at  least  three  ] 
forms  of  interest,  namely,  curiosity,  expectation, 
and  desire. 

Curiosity,  expectation  and  desire.  When  a 
situation  is  partly  known  and  partly  unknown, 
the  known  aspects  excite  motor  tendencies  along 
grooves  which  have  been  formed  by  previous  ex- 
perience. The  known  elements  may  have  been 
experienced  in  a  form  similar  to  that  in  which 
they  are  in  the  partially  known  situation,  or  they 
may  have  been  combined  in  a  different  manner 
or  with  different  situations.  They  excite  an 
attitude  which  may  or  may  not  be  fit  for  the  new 
situation.  In  so  far  as  aspects  of  the  situation 
are  not  known,  they  impel  innervations  and  ten- 
dencies towards  a  further  control  which  will 
dispel   the   uncertainty   which   is   aroused,    and 

^  See  Jevons,  W.  S.,  The  Theory  of  Political  Economy,  Ch.  III. 
Wieser,  Friedrich  von.  Natural  Value,  Eng.  tr.  by  C.  A.  Malloch. 
Clark,  John  Bates,  The  Distribution  of  Wealth.  Compare  the 
discussions  in  Adam  Smith,  David  Ricardo,  Karl  JVIgrx,  etc. 


MOTOR  ASPECT  OF  INTEREST    189 

which  will  produce  a  feeling  of  rest  and  quies- 
cence. Such  attitudes  and  tendencies  are  felt 
as  interest. 

^  When  a  situation  is  not  immediately  present 
but  is  awaited  with  feelings  of  strain,  tension, 
and  sometimes  with  anxiety,  we  have  the  interest 
of  expectation.  The  situation  in  question  is 
more  or  less  fully  known,  but  immediate  control 
is  not  possible  because  the  situation  is  not 
present.  Control  can  not  be  realised.  Tenden- 
cies to  such  control,  however,  are  present,  and  it 
is  the  attitude  taken  with  reference  to  the  situa- 
tion which  is  to  come  which  constitutes  the  basis 
of  the  interest.  Since  reaction  is  impossible,  only 
the  motor  *set'  can  be  present. 

A  strong  form  of  interest  is  conscious  desire. 
Not  only  is  there  a  prospective  situation  or  ter- 
minus to  which  the  individual  takes  an  attitude, 
but,  in  addition,  such  attitude  stimulates  him  to 
further  effort,  and  excites  tendencies  towards  a 
control  of  the  present  which  will  lead  to  the  end 
desired.  If  such  means  are  not  actively  sought, 
desire  may  lapse  into  mere  wish.  One  may  wish 
for  the  pot  of  gold  at  the  other  end  of  the 
rainbow,  for  example,  but  one  actively  desires 
control  of  an  object,  in  that  one  works  in  the 
present,  removes  obstacles,  seeks  aid,  and  the 


190  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

like,  so  as  to  reach  the  coveted  situation.  The 
motor  tendencies  and  innervations  which  are  felt 
to  control  a  present  means  which  will  lead  to  the 
end  are  felt  as  desire  and  constitute  the  motor 
aspect  of  the  interest. 

A  few  points  of  difference  between  these  three 
forms  of  interest  may  be  noted.  Expectation 
and  desire  both  have  reference  to  some  prospec- 
tive situation.  The  former,  however,  is  a  more 
passive  state.  In  expectation,  realisation  is  de- 
pendent either  upon  the  activity  or  lack  of 
activity  of  some  one  else,  or  upon  external  con- 
ditions which  seem  out  of  the  individual's  control. 
Time,  or  change  in  extrinsic  conditions,  or  action 
on  the  part  of  another  is  what  separates  the  in- 
terested person  from  the  state  towards  which  he 
is  looking.  He  can  do  little  on  his  own  account  to 
further  realisation  of  the  situation  which  he  wants. 
He  feels  tendencies,  however,  which  are  excited 
by  the  anticipation  of  this  situation,  and  so  feels 
an  interest  in  it.  In  active  desire,  on  the  other 
hand,  means  are  sought  with  a  view  of  coming 
into  closer  contact  with  the  situation  desired. 
The  individual  begins  to  work  out  his  general 
attitude  into  a  series  of  definite  reactions.  He 
bends  the  present  towards  the  future  and  recon- 
structs what  is  under  his  immediate  control  for 


MOTOR  ASPECT  OF  INTEREST        19l\ 

the  purpose  of  realising  some  prospective  mo- 
ment. Curiosity  differs  from  both  desire  and 
expectation  in  that  the  situation  which  excites 
it  is  present  and  under  control  of  the  individual 
concerned.  In  so  far  as  it  is  partially  unknown, 
its  full  significance  remains  in  doubt.  There  is, 
however,  a  definite  starting  point  from  which 
further  reaction  and  control  may  begin.  In  ex- 
pectation and  desire  the  situation  is  remote  and 
out  of  the  individual's  immediate  control.^ 
§  ii.  illustration 

1.  Literary. 

Compare  the  states  of  mind  indicated  by  the 
following  selections   from  Tennyson: 

How  dull  it  is  to  pause,  to  make  an  end. 
To  rust  unburnish'd,  not  to  shine  in  use ! 
As  tho'  to  breathe  were  life.     Life  piled  on  life 
Were  all  too  little,  and  of  one  to  me 
Little  remains:   but  every  hour  is  saved 
From  that  eternal  silence,  something  more, 
A  bringer  of  new  things :   and  vile  it  were 
For  some  three  suns  to  store  and  hoard  myself. 
And  this  gray  spirit  yearning  in  desire 
To  follow  knowledge  like  a  sinking  star. 
Beyond  the  utmost  bound  of  human  thought. 

Ulysses,  by  Tennyson. 
''See  Arnold,  F.,  *The  Psychology  of  Interest,'  Psych.  Rev.,  13: 

221-238,  and  291-315,  and  'Interest  and  Attention,'  Psych.  Bui,  2: 

361-368. 


192  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

They  sat  them  down  upon  the  yellow  sand, 
Between  the  sun  and  moon  upon  the  shore; 
And  sweet  it  was  to  dream  of  Fatherland, 
^  Of  child  and  wife,  and  slave ;  but  evermore 

Most  weary  seem'd  the  sea,  weary  the  oar. 
Weary  the  wandering  fields  of  barren  foam. 
Then  some  one  said,  "We  will  return  no  more"; 
And  all  at  once  they  sang,  "Our  island  home 
Is  far  beyond  the  wave ;  we  will  no  longer  roam." 
The  Lotus-Eaters,  by  Tennyson. 

Contrast  the  two  states  of  mind  with  reference  to  (1) 
the  motor  tendencies,  (2)  the  nature  of  the  situations 
which  control  action,  (3)  the  future  reference  of  each, 
and  (4)  the  passivity  of  the  feelings  of  rest  and 
quiescence. 

"And  now,"  said  she,  "we  have  to  get  the  key  of  that; 
and  w  ho's  to  touch  it,  I  should  like  to  know !"  .  .  . 

I  felt  in  his  pockets,  one  after  another.  A  few  small 
coins,  a  thimble,  and  some  thread  and  big  needles,  a 
piece  of  pigtail  tobacco  bitten  away  at  the  end,  his 
gully  with  the  crooked  handle,  a  pocket  compass,  and  a 
tinder  box,  were  all  that  they  contained,  and  I  began 
to  despair. 

"Perhaps  it's  round  his  neck,"  suggested  my  mother. 

Overcoming   a    strong   repugnance,   I   tore   open   his 
shirt  at  the  neck,  and  there,  sure  enough,  hanging  to  | 
a  bit  of  tarry  string,  we  found  the  key.    At  this  triumph 
we  were  filled  with  hope,  and  hurried  up-stairs,  without 
delay,  to  the  little  room  where  he  had  slept  so  long,| 


MOTOR  ASPECT  OF  INTEREST    193 

and  where  his  box  had  stood  since  the  day  of  his 
arrival.  .  .  , 

"Give  me  the  key,"  said  my  mother:  and  though 
the  lock  was  very  stiff,  she  had  turned  it  and  thrown 
back  the  lid  in  a  twinkling. — Treasure  Island,  by  Steven- 
son, 32. 

Are  there  any  repelling  elements  in  the  search?  Why 
does  it  continue.?  Does  the  interest  inhere  in  the  key  as 
such.?     What  is  the  end  to  be  realised.? 

Here  I  sit  at  the  desk  again,  watching  his  eye — 
humbly  watching  his  eye,  as  he  rules  a  ciphering-book 
for  another  victim  whose  hands  have  just  been  flattened 
by  that  identical  ruler,  and  who  is  trying  to  wipe  the 
sting  out  with  a  pocket-handkerchief.  I  have  plenty 
to  do.  I  don't  watch  his  eye  in  idleness,  but  because  I 
am  morbidly  attracted  to  it,  in  a  dread  desire  to  know 
what  he  will  do  next,  and  whether  it  will  be  my  turn 
to  suffer,  or  somebody  else's.  A  lane  of  boys  beyond  me, 
with  the  same  interest  in  his  eye,  watch  it  too. — David 
Copperfleld.    Dickens.     Ch.  VII. 

2.  Experimental. 

Note  the  attitude  of  a  child  who  is  interested  In  a 
toy,  a  book,  etc.  Mark  the  facial  expression,  the  body 
posture,  the  finger  movements,  etc. 

Watch  a  child  who  is  reading  what  seems  to  be  an 
interesting  book.  Note  movements  of  anticipation,  ex- 
citement, anxiety  to  get  ahead  in  the  story. 

When  you  are  explaining  something  to  a  learner,  note 
13 


194  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

your   own  tendencies   to  do  the  work  yourself  instead 
of  letting  the  learner  do  it. 

Try  to  examine  your  own  attitude  when  you  are 
interested  in  an  object,  in  a  story,  in  the  solution  of  a 
problem,  etc.  Note  feelings  of  stress,  of  motor  ten- 
dencies, and  the  like. 

Read  the  following:  Then  there  came  a  single  call 
on  the  sea-pipe,  and  that  was  the  signal.  A  knot  of 
them  made  one  rush  of  it,  cutlass  in  hand,  against  the 
door ;  and  at  the  same  moment,  the  glass  of  the  skylight 
was  dashed  in  a  thousand  pieces,  and  a  man  leaped 
through  and  landed  on  the  floor.  Before  he  got  to 
his  feet,  I  had  clapped  a  pistol  to  his  back,  and  ...  — 
Kidnapped.     Stevenson.     94. 

Do  you  note  any  feelings  of  unrest,  of  desire  to 
continue,  of  motor  innervations  towards  readjustment, 
or  the  like?  What  is  the  aim  of  the  publisher  of  a 
serial  story  who  ends  part  of  a  chapter  with,  'To  be 
continued  in  our  next.f^' 

/  §  III.  DEVELOPMENT 

The  rise  of  interest  is  dependent  chiefly  upon 
two  factors,  (1)  pleasure-pain,  etc.,  and  (2)  in- 
stinct. When  any  situation  excites  pleasure- 
pain,  etc.,  it  is  a  means  of  stimulating  reaction. 
Such  pleasure-pain,  etc.,  however,  is  not  the 
interest  which  it  develops.  In  connection  with 
instinctive  behavior  it  affords  a  basis  for  the 
development  of  interest.     The  process  is  some- 


MOTOR  ASPECT  OF  INTEREST    195 

what  as  follows:  Any  situation  which  excites 
feelings  of  shock,  pleasure,  satisfaction,  pain, 
and  the  like,  other  things  being  equal,  will  arouse 
reaction  and  attention  to  it.  If  such  a  situation, 
after  it  has  entered  the  center  of  the  field  of 
attention,  persists  in  the  focus,  and  leads  to  a 
pleasing  or  satisfying  terminus,  traces  of  the 
impressions,  reactions,  etc.,  are  left  in  the  indi- 
vidual who  is  attending.  As  the  result  of  the 
control,  residual  traces,  visual,  motor,  and  the 
like,  remain.  The  situation  has  then  a  meaning, 
and,  in  addition,  points  to  a  repetition  of  the 
terminus  which  is  known  to  be  pleasing  or  satis- 
fying. When  this  situation  or  one  like  it  is 
again  before  the  individual,  in  addition  to  in- 
herent impelling  powers  of  its  own,  it  will  tend 
to  excite  an  attitude  favorable  to  its  persistence 
in  the  focus  of  attention.  The  individual  will 
feel  impelled  to  react  towards  it,  to  control  it, 
to  manipulate  in  the  manner  which  on  a  former 
occasion  resulted  in  feelings  of  pleasure,  ease, 
satisfaction,  quiescence,  and  the  like.  The  ter- 
minus to  which  it  once  led  will  again  be  sought. 
In  other  words,  the  situation  has  an  interest 
which  excites  the  individual  to  maintain  it  in  the 
center  of  attentive  control.  This  interest  in  an 
attitude  over  and  above  any  feelings  of  pleasure 


196  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

which  the  situation,   as  such,  may  be  able  to 
excite. 

The  following  account  illustrates  to  some  ex- 
tent this  process: 

She  was  holding  objects,  looking  at  them,  and  pulling 
them  about  for  some  moments,  before  they  went  to  her 
mouth.  The  pleasure  of  this  handling  seemed  to  be 
in  the  free  movement  of  the  objects  (seen  and  felt  at 
the  same  time),  not  especially  in  the  touch  sensations. 
When  this  new  pleasure  was  exhausted,  things  went  to 
the  mouth  as  before  for  the  enjoyment  of  touch.  ...  In 
a  few  hours  the  baby  was  reaching  for  everything  near 
her,  and  in  three  days  more  her  desire  to  lay  hold  on 
things  was  the  dominant  motive  of  her  life.  Her  grasp- 
ing was  stiU  of  tener  with  both  hands  than  one,  and  was 
somewhat  slow,  but  always  accurate.*  i 

The  child's  desire  to  get  a  *penny'  for  a  stick 
of  candy,  his  interest  in  a  toy,  and  the  like,  are 
common  examples.  Until  experienced,  the  candy, 
toy,  etc.,  mean  little.  But  after  the  child  has 
eaten  the  candy,  played  with  the  toy,  controlled 
the  situation  which  leads  to  a  pleasing  or  satisfy- 
ing terminus,  the  sight  of  the  candy,  toy,  or  what 
not,  will  excite  tendencies  to  control  again  the 
object  in  question.  The  sight  of  the  object 
alone  may  rouse  pleasure.     In  addition  are  the 

*  Shinn,  Milicent  Washburn,  The  Biography  of  a  Baby,  142, 143. 


MOTOR  ASPECT  OF  INTEREST   19T 

revived  tendencies  to  play,  manipulate,  control, 
and  the  like,  which  have  previously  resulted  in 
pleasure,  etc.  At  first,  instincts  and  feelings  are 
sufficient  to  impel  attention  and  stimulate  motor 
control.  After  the  child  has  reacted  there  is  the 
resulting  residual  motor  and  ideal  basis  which 
impels  and  guides  further  control.  The  situa- 
tion is  now  one  which  has  interest.  It  means  for 
the  individual  the  possibility  of  realising  pleas- 
urable, satisfying,  quieting  feelings,  of  obtain- 
ing joy,  ease,  satisfaction,  and  the  like.  It  will, 
when  again  presented,  excite  motor  tendencies  to 
play,  manipulate,  handle,  etc.,  and  a  desire  to 
control  it  because  of  the  terminus  to  which  pre- 
vious control  has  shown  it  to  lead.  Conscious- 
ness of  this  end  need  not  be  present  in  distinct 
form,  but  may  lie  enmeshed  in  a  fringe  of 
meaning. 

The  motor,  visual,  tactile,  and  other  impres- 
sions will  leave  traces  strong  enough  to  excite 
interest  even  when  the  toy  or  other  object  is 
not  before  the  child.  The  mere  mention  of  the 
object,  its  name,  a  picture  of  it,  etc.,  will  excite 
an  interest  in  the  individual  strong  enough  to 
impel  attempted  control.  Verbal  and  motor  ex- 
pressions usually  show  the  presence  of  such  in- 
terest.    The  motor   attitude   and   innervations 


.:^ 


198  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

which  are  excited  give  the  feel  of  interest  and 
stamp  the  object  as  one  which  has  a  value  or 
worth.  In  all  this,  the  feeling  of  interest  should 
not  be  confused  with  the  more  passive  feelings 
of  ease,  satisfaction,  pleasure,  or  quiescence. 

A  situation  may  give  rise  to  pain,  dissatisfac- 
tion, unrest,  etc.  In  such  a  case  its  repetition  will 
also  excite  interest  but  of  a  negative  character. 
Motor  tendencies  will  then  point  away  from  the 
situation.  There  will  be  felt  innervations  and 
impulses  to  get  away  from  the  disturbing  object, 
remove  it,  destroy  it,  or  do  away  with  it.  Thus 
Preyer  notes: 

Screaming  when  water  26°  C.  was  poured  over  him 
in  the  bath  appeared,  a  few  days  after  the  first  experi- 
ment of  this  sort,  even  before  the  bathing,  at  sight  of 
the  tub,  sponge,  and  water.  Previously,  fear  had  only 
in  very  rare  cases  occasioned  screaming,  now  the  idea 
of  the  cold  and  wet  that  were  to  be  expected  was  enough 
to  occasion  violent  screaming.^ 

The  negative  interest  which  the  situation 
arouses  is  the  feeling  of  these  motor  tendencies 
to  react  in  a  manner  unfavorable  to  the  persist- 
ence of  the  object  in  the  focus  of  consciousness. 
As  in  the  more  positive  cases  of  interest,  experi- 

'  Preyer,  W.,  The  Development  of  the  Intellect,  Eng.  tr.  by 
H.  W.  Brown,  132. 


ft 


MOTOR  ASPECT  OP  INTEREST    199 

ence  is  necessary  before  the  full  meaning  of  the 
situation  can  be  appreciated. 

Primary,  secondary  and  acquired  interest. 
Such  interest  as  is  excited  by  the  object  itself 
because  of  the  terminus  to  which  it  leads  di- 
rectly may  be  called  a  primary  interest.  In  pri- 
mary interest  the  object  itself  is  desired  and 
fuller  control  of  it  is  attempted  because  of  its 
inherent  power  to  produce  pleasurable  or  sat- 
isfying feelings.  Should  the  object  be  more 
remote,  should  direct  control  of  it  be  impossible, 
any  means  which  will  lead  to  control  of  it  will 
have  an  interest  in  that  they  excite  tendencies 
similar  to  those  roused  by  the  situation  itself. 
Thus,  if  a  series  of  means,  a,h,c,,.,  etc.,  lead 
to  A,  interest  in  a,  b,  c,  .  ,  ,  etc.,  will  be  felt 
because  of  the  connection  which  they  have  with 
A,  Such  interest  which  is  derived  from  a  pri- 
mary interest  may  be  called  a  secondary  interest. 

The  nature  of  secondary  interest  emphasises 
the  difference  between  a  feeling  of  interest  and 
feelings  of  pleasure-pain,  satisfaction,  and  the 
like.  The  means,  as  such,  may  be  highly  unpleas- 
ant or  even  painful  and  repelling,  and  still  may 
possess  a  secondary  interest  because  of  some 
pleasing  or  satisfying  terminus  to  which  they 
lead.     A  child,  for  example,  may  be  impelled 


200  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

to  work  sums  in  arithmetic,  run  errands,  or  do 
other  disagreeable  tasks  because  of  the  secondary- 
interest  which  such  work  possesses.  In  them- 
selves the  means  may  have  little  impelling  power. 
But  as  connected  with  an  end  which  has  primary 
interest,  they  are  able  to  excite  secondary 
interest. 

Secondary  interest  with  means  pleasurable  or 
painful  may  be  represented  in  the  following 
scheme:  Let  +  indicate  means  which  are  pleas- 
ing or  satisfying  in  themselves,  and  —  means 
which  are  painful  or  dissatisfying.  Both  lead  to 
a  situation,  P,  which  has  primary  interest.  The 
interest  in  the  means  is  secondary.  In  both 
cases  interest  is  of  a  positive  character  in  that  it 
leads  to  a  situation  which  is  pleasing  or  satisfy- 
ing. The  following  scheme  illustrates  this  posi- 
tive movement: 

agreeable 
S    +    +    +    +    + 
>  p 


disagreeable 


Negative  interest  may  be  represented  in  a 
similar  manner.  In  this  case  the  means  lead 
away  from  a  situation  which  is  repelling  and 
which  has  a  negative  interest.  Interest  of  such 
a  sort  may  be  represented  as  follows: 


MOTOR  ASPECT  OF  INTEREST        201 

agreeable 
+    +    +    +    +    S 
p  > 

_ s 

disagreeable 

Comparing  positive  and  negative  interests, 
both  primary  (P)  and  secondary  {S)  with  pleas- 
urable (  +  )  and  painful  ( — )  means,  we  have 
the  following  scheme: 


s 

+ 
-> 

+  +  + 

+ 

P 

+ 
P 

+    +    + 

+ 

S 

s 

s 

Positive 

Negative 

The  distinctions  illustrated  by  this  diagram 
should  be  clearly  kept  in  mind.  Secondary  in- 
terest is  often  confused  with  negative  interest, 
especially  in  educational  theory  and  practice. 
Interest  in  a  painful  means  which  leads  to  some- 
thing positive  is  very  different  from  that  in  a 
painful  means  which  leads  away  from  a  more 
painful  situation,  at  least  as  far  as  the  terminus 
is  concerned. 

If  the  means  are  pleasurable  and  satisfying 
an  interest  will  tend  to  develop  in  them  as  such. 
If  the  end  has  sufficient  impelling  power  to  hold 
attention  to  the  means  and  to  excite  a  secondary 
interest  in  them,  continued  experience  which  re- 
sults in  pleasure  and  satisfaction  will  develop 
an  interest  in  such  means.     Such  interest  may 


202  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

be  called  an  acquired  interest.  Acquired  interest 
may  be  developed  even  in  the  case  of  means 
which  at  first  are  repelling  and  disagreeable. 
Many  of  our  interests  in  later  life  are  of  such  a 
character.  A  child  is  not  born  a  developed 
mathematician,  historian,  business  man,  or  what 
not.  In  fact,  attempts  to  develop  him  in  some 
such  specific  direction,  and  to  give  him  practice 
in  the  necessary  technique  and  routine  work,  may 
at  first  entail  considerable  effort.  But  as  more 
complete  control  is  acquired  over  means  which 
lead  to  artificial  ends,  as  residual  traces  allow 
of  fuller  interpretation,  the  means  come  to  have 
a  value  and  a  worth  because  of  pleasure  and 
satisfaction  which  gradually  arise  out  of  their 
control.  As  the  acquired  interest  grows  stronger 
it  replaces  the  artificial  end  which  at  first  ex- 
cited the  secondary  interest  in  the  means.  Many 
of  our  scholastic  interests  have  been  developed 
in  this  manner.  The  mechanical  aspects  of  much 
school  work  is  strengthened  by  artificial  ends  be- 
fore the  acquired  interest  is  strong  enough  to 
hold  attention  to  them.  Acquired  interest  is 
like  primary  interest  save  that  it  is  the  result  of 
a  secondary  interest  in  the  means.  Since  various 
objects  and  situations  have  by  social  experience 
been  found  to  possess  value  and  worth  to  the 


MOTOR  ASPECT  OF  INTEREST   203 

individual,  and  since  first  contact  with  such  ob- 
jects or  situations  may  not  yield  the  pleasure 
and  satisfaction  which  fuller  control  will  bring, 
it  is  often  necessary  to  overcome  the  inertia  of 
the  individual  by  setting  artificial  ends  and  in- 
centives and  for  the  time  to  make  the  real  situ- 
ations of  worth  a  means  to  the  artificial  ends. 
Fuller  control  will  then  be  developed  and  the 
acquired  interest  formed. 

If  possible,  acquired  interests  should  be  de- 
veloped from  secondary  interests  of  a  positive 
character.  If  negative  interest  is  used  there  is 
danger  that  the  negative  aspect  may  be  associ- 
ated with  the  means  and  remain  fixed.  If  these 
means  have  social  worth,  the  child  should  be 
attracted  rather  than  repelled  by  them.  Thus, 
a  child  may  do  something  of  a  disagreeable  na- 
ture to  avoid  the  infliction  of  pain  or  the  per- 
formance of  still  more  disagreeable  tasks.  Some 
situation,  P,  is  then  used  to  impel  secondary 
interest  to  disagreeable  means,  S,  which  possess 
their  interest  simply  because  they  are  a  means 
of  avoiding  P.    This  is  illustrated  by  the  scheme 

below. 

P s > 

In  such  a  case  there  is  little  chance  that  an 
acquired  interest  will  be  developed  in  the  means. 


204  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

The  whole  process,  control  of  means  and  thought 
of  threatened  end,  is  disagreeable  and  dissatis- 
fying. The  probability  is  that  it  will  soon  be 
forgotten.  One  who  works  unwillingly  under 
threat  of  punishment  will  not  be  impelled  to  con- 
tinue such  work  or  to  renew  old  associations 
with  it. 

§  IV.  EXPLANATION 

The  motor  tendencies,  which,  as  felt,  consti- 
tute one  part  of  interest,  are  the  expressive  side 
of  the  sensorimotor  unit.  The  direction  in  which 
they  point  is  dependent  upon  the  results  of 
previous  experience.  Tendencies  of  appetition 
towards  some  situations  and  of  aversion  from 
other  situations  are  due  to  the  feelings  of  pleas- 
ure-pain, satisfaction,  dissatisfaction,  etc.,  which 
resulted  from  previous  control.  The  appetition 
or  aversion  does  not  make  the  situation  attrac- 
tive or  repelling.  The  attractive  or  repelling 
nature  of  a  situation  is  due  to  former  experience 
which  has  developed  meaning  in  one  or  the  other 
direction.  Representation  of  the  situation  will 
then  excite  the  motor  tendencies  towards  or  from 
it.  The  strength  of  such  tendencies  and  the  per- 
sistence with  which  they  continue  may  be  taken 
in  part  as  a  measure  of  the  impelling  or  repelling 
character  of  the  situation. 


MOTOR  ASPECT  OF  INTEREST    205 

From  a  biological  point  of  view,  selection  and 
development  of  some  forms  of  control  would  be 
practically  impossible  without  such  motor  ten- 
dencies and  attitudes.  The  gliding  about  of 
abstract  ideas  or  cold,  formal  images  can  not  give 
rise  to  the  warmth  and  moving  power  of  interest. 
Summation  of  a  number  can  hardly  produce  what 
one  does  not  possess  as  such.  All  impressions 
do  not  and  can  not  have  equal  impelling  power, 
and  if  direction  and  purposive  meaning  are  to 
be  given  to  some  in  preference  to  others,  use 
and  function  as  determined  by  motor  control 
must  be  present.  If  an  individual  reacted 
equally  to  all  impressions  or  ideas  of  sufficient 
vividness  to  force  their  way  into  consciousness, 
he  would  develop  an  incoherency  of  action  which 
would  injure  or  destroy  him.  Even  the  most 
scatter-brained  person  must  cling  to  some  simple 
interest,  must  have  some  tendencies  which  direct 
his  efforts  in  a  more  or  less  specific  direction 
when  situations  of  a  furthering  or  hindering  na- 
ture arise.  Such  interests  may  be  primitive  and 
immediate  but  they  are  necessary  if  the  individual 
is  not  to  be  submerged  in  chaos  and  confusion. 
In  fact,  the  vividness  and  inherent,  impelling 
nature  of  situations  which  can  result  only  in 
harm  must  be  stamped  with  a  proper  value,  must 


206  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

deveiop  a  negative  interest,  must  excite  motor 
tendencies  to  destroy,  or  remove,  or  withdraw 
from  the  situation.  The  clang  of  the  bell  on  the 
street,  for  example,  means  one  thing,  that  of 
the  bell  at  home  means  another,  according  as 
the  motor  attitude  points  one  way  or  the  other. 

This  purposive  character  shows  the  inadequacy 
of  those  views  which  consider  interest  simply  as 
pleasure-pain.  Many  situations  of  inherent, 
pleasure-pain  exciting  power  may,  upon  first 
impression,  hold  attention  for  a  while,  but  in 
short  time,  wane  and  die  away ;  and  upon  further 
representation,  they  may  fail  to  excite  even  a 
faint  glimmer  of  interest.  If  reaction  towards 
such  situations  shows  their  useless  or  perhaps 
harmful  nature,  their  passive  and  superficial 
pleasure-pain  aspects  are  passed  by  or  ignored. 
They  will  then  lack  interest  in  spite  of  their 
inherent,  impelling  nature.  This  dynamic  dif- 
ference beween  pleasure-pain  and  interest  ac- 
counts also  for  the  intense  interest  which  may  be 
excited  by  objects  of  an  apparently  commonplace 
or  even  repelling  character.  Objects  may  lack 
the  surface  qualities  which  attract  and  first  con- 
tact with  them  may  yield  but  little  pleasure,  may, 
in  fact,  be  repelling  or  painful.  Were  interest 
simply  a  feeling  of  pleasure-pain,  etc.,  such  ob- 


IDEAL  ASPECT  OF  INTEKEST         207 

jects  would  not  be  able,  as  they  are,  to  excite  a 
positive  interest.  It  is  the  use  to  which  such 
objects  can  be  put,  the  service  which  they  are 
able  to  yield,  the  pleasure  or  satisfaction  to  which 
they  lead,  which  determines  the  interest  in  them. 
When  present,  they  excite  motor  tendencies  to 
react  in  the  manner  which  on  previous  occasions 
resulted  in  pleasure  or  satisfaction.  Since  the 
interest  may  be  present  as  soon  as  the  object  is 
cognised,  and  since  no  pleasure  can  result  until 
motor  control  has  been  realised,  the  two,  pleasure 
and  interest,  can  hardly  be  the  same.  Interest 
is  developed  on  the  bases  of  pleasure,  etc.,  and 
instinct,  but  it  is  neither  of  these.  A  common 
example  is  interest  in  a  book,  or  a  golf -stick,  or 
a  packing  case,  or  a  time-table,  etc.,  which,  pre- 
vious to  fuller  control,  are  more  or  less  indiffer- 
ent as  far  as  pleasure-pain  is  concerned. 
Reaction  at  first  may,  in  fact,  have  been  of  a 
purely  instinctive  character.^ 

°  Much  of  the  discussion  of  the  motor  and  physiological  aspects 
of  attention  apply  to  interest.  Discussion  of  these  would  simply 
be  unnecessary  duplication.    See  Chapter  III,  2,  and  Chapter  IV. 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  IDEAL  ASPECT  OF  INTEREST 

§  I.  DESCRIPTION 

In  its  simplest  form,  interest  on  the  cognitive 
side  consists  of  a  fringe  of  meaning  or  perhaps 
a  dim  awareness  of  the  future  moment  which  is 
to  be  realised.  There  need  be  no  distinct  image 
or  thought  of  such  a  future  state.  The  impres- 
sions carry  with  them,  as  it  were,  a  wavy,  blurred 
outline  of  what  is  to  come,  a  kind  of  iridescent 
halo  of  possibility.  When  the  interest  exists, 
the  object  is  looked  at  in  another  light.  It  means 
more  to  the  individual.  It  lingers  longer  in  the 
center  of  the  attentive  field.  More  often,  how- 
ever, the  interesting  object  or  situation  excites 
an  image  or  a  train  of  ideas  which  point  to  the 
future  moment  which  is  to  be  realised.  These 
images  or  ideas  are  present  at  times  only  as 
fragments,  only  as  piecemeal  signs  to  point  the 
way.  Sometimes  they  rise,  give  motor  direction, 
and  flit  away,  leaving  only  the  motor  attitude. 
Often  only  the  verbal  image  is  present.  A  man 
who  is  gazing  intently  at  a  railroad  time-table 
may  show  interest  in  what,  under  other  circum- 

308 


IDEAL  ASPECT  OF  INTEREST         209 

stances,  might  not  hold  the  attention  for  more 
than  a  moment.  On  the  cognitive  side  the  inter- 
est consists  in  the  images  and  ideas  which  are 
aroused  by  the  directions,  figures,  etc.,  in  the 
thoughts  of  future  moments  of  control  which 
will  yield  satisfaction  or  pleasure.  The  printed 
schedule  may  excite  anticipations  of  country 
life,  pleasant  rambles,  agreeable  companions, 
and  the  like.  It  may  revive  thoughts  of  work  to 
be  accomplished,  of  engagements  to  be  met,  of 
effort  to  be  put  forth,  of  control  which  will  end 
in  ease,  satisfaction  or  pleasure.  The  time-table 
is  of  interest  in  that  it  is  able  to  make  connec- 
tions with  future  moments  which  affect  the  indi- 
vidual. On  the  ideal  side  such  interest  consists 
of  the  images  and  ideas  which  point  to  the  future 
situations  which  are  to  be  realised. 

In  interest  in  present,  concrete  situations,  the^ 
ideal  aspect  is  merged  in  the  sensory.  There  is 
present  an  ideal  trend  which  is  transmitted  out- 
wards through  motor  channels.  Thus,  as  far  as 
the  sensory  elements  are  concerned,  there  is  little 
difference  between  a  trunk  or  case  on  the  street, 
and  the  particular  trunk  or  case  in  one's  room 
which  contains  art  treasures,  books,  implements, 
clothes,  hats,  or  what  not.  The  great  difference 
between  them,  the  difference  which  constitutes 

14 


210  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

the  interest  in  the  one,  is  the  meaning  which  this 
one  has,  the  significance  which  it  bears,  the  an- 
ticipation which  it  excites.  This  meaning,  this 
pointing  outwards  to  the  future,  this  prospective 
reference,  is  often  overlooked,  because  it  is  so 
closely  connected  with  the  predominating  motor 
attitude.  By  comparing  situations  which  have 
interest,  with  similar  situations  which  have  little 
interest,  one  can  more  easily  distinguish  the  ideal 
aspect  of  the  interest. 

Where  a  situation  is  more  or  less  ideal,  as  a 
thought,  a  plan,  a  mental  picture,  the  revived 
elements  are  more  distinct.  They  usually  exist 
as  free  images  and  ideas.  A  name,  for  example, 
may  stir  up  a  host  of  associations  which  circulate 
about  the  basic  thought  or  image  and  hold  it  in 
the  center  of  attention.  The  parent  who  is  plan- 
ning the  future  of  his  child,  the  inventor  who  is 
mapping  out  an  outline  of  some  invention,  the 
soldier  who  is  thinking  of  ways  and  means  to 
trap  the  enemy,  the  student  who  is  working  out 
some  problem, — all  are  examples  in  point.  The 
ideas  or  images  do  not  usually  arise  as  clean-cut 
totalities,  with  perfect  forms  and  well  rounded 
outlines.  Only  the  faintest  glimmer  at  times  is 
present,  sometimes  only  frayed  edges  and 
quickly  vanishing  traces.    When  these  are  insuf- 


IDEAL  ASPECT  OF  INTEREST         211 

ficient  to  direct  the  motor  attitude  they  are  made 
more  definite  by  means  of  words,  drawings, 
graphic  outlines,  and  the  like.  Thus,  one  may 
repeat  and  rerepeat  a  word  which  is  not  under- 
stood, or  may  seek  further  light  by  drawing  out 
the  parts  of  a  problem,  and  so  on.  So  long  as 
they  are  vivid  enough  to  direct  action,  however, 
they  pass  along  in  an  even  flow  without  articu- 
latory,  manual,  or  other  halts. 

Curiosity,  expectation  and  desire.  In  curi- 
osity, the  imagination  supplies  what  the  unknown 
elements  in  an  object  or  situation  are  unable  to 
present  in  themselves.  The  individual  fits  now 
this,  now  that  image  or  idea  to  the  situation 
which  has  attracted  him.  Since  the  relation  of 
the  object  to  the  future  welfare  of  the  individual 
is  partially  unknown,  he  seeks  to  fill  the  gap 
by  drawing  upon  the  ideal  resources  which  have 
been  developed  from  former  experiences.  The 
great  terror  which  strikes  some  when  in  the  pres- 
ence of  a  situation  almost  totally  unknown  is 
due  in  part  to  their  inability  to  connect  it  with 
their  personal  history.  Sometimes  a  future  sit- 
uation is  dimly  thought  or  imagined  and  the  indi- 
vidual then  may  be  in  a  quiver  of  excitement  to 
see  what  are  the  possibilities  of  realisation.  The 
curiosity  of  passers-by  is  often  of  such  a  sort. 


212  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

\j 

When  expectation  is  present,   the  cognitive 

aspect  of  interest  consists  chiefly  in  thoughts  and 
ideas  of  the  situation  which  is  to  be  reahsed. 
There  are  usually  numerous  imaginative  addi- 
tions which  may  or  may  not  be  realised.  These 
embellishments  and  added  imaginative  features 
give  greater  impelling  power  to  the  situation 
which  is  anticipated.  The  individual  who  ex- 
pects presents,  honors,  promotion,  and  the  like, 
may  magnify  them  and  ideally  enhance  the  pos- 
sibilities of  pleasure  and  satisfaction  to  be  ob- 
tained from  them.  When  no  exaggeration  is 
present,  the  interest  centers  round  some  repre- 
sentative idea  with  the  associations  which  inhere 
in  it.  The  individual  then  looks  forward  to 
some  situation  which  has  arisen  before,  and  calls 
to  mind  the  pleasing  and  satisfying  incidents 
connected  with  it.  * 

In  desire,  the  tendencies  excited  by  the  possi- 
bilities of  realising  a  future  situation  may  impel 
the  construction  of  a  series  of  ideal  means.  Such 
means  serve  to  connect  the  future  with  the  pres- 
ent. An  individual  will  then  work  out  a  series 
of  carefully  coordinated  means  which  will  guide 
him  to  the  situation  in  view.  He  may  have  an 
interest  in  the  solution  of  a  problem.  His  desire 
to  solve  it  may  impel  him  to  think  of  further  in- 


IDEAL  ASPECT  OF  INTEREST         213 

formation  to  be  obtained,  of  books  or  persons 
that  will  assist  him,  and  so  on.  Worry,  sleep- 
lessness, etc.,  are  often  caused  by  a  tumultuous 
and  irresistible  flow  of  ideas  which  fail  to  satisfy 
conditions,  bridge  the  gap  between  the  aim  and 
the  present  situation,  or  form  a  harmonious  and 
consistent  system.  Interest  in  the  means  is  pres- 
ent because  of  their  connection  with  the  pleasing 
or  satisfying  terminus.  On  the  cognitive  side 
there  will  be  the  images,  ideas,  outlines,  etc.,  of 
the  means,  and  numerous  other  associated  ideas, 
as,  of  the  pleasing  terminus,  of  the  results  of 
realisation,  of  similar  means  or  ends,  and  so  on. 
The  mere  idea  of  all  that  is  possible  in  a  future 
situation  will  induce  interest  in  associated  ideas, 
will  transfer  a  portion  of  the  interest  to  other 
objects  or  ideas  which  may  aid  in  the  realisation 
of  the  situation  which  is  desired.^ 

§  ii.  illustration 

1.  Literary. 

Oh,  Day,  if  I  squander  a  wavelet  of  thee, 

A  mite  of  my  twelve  hours'  treasure, 

The  least  of  thy  gazes  or  glances, 

(Be  they  grants  thou  art  bound  to  or  gifts  beyond 

measure) 
One  of  thy  choices  or  one  of  thy  chances, 

*See  the  discussion  in  the  foregoing  chapter. 


214  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

(Be  they  tasks  God  imposed  thee  or  freaks  at  thy 

pleasure) 
— My  Day,  if  I  squander  such  labor  or  leisure, 
Then  shame  fall  on  Asolo,  mischief  on  me. 

Thy  long  blue  solemn  hours  serenely  flowing. 
Whence  earth,  we  feel,  gets  steady  help  and  good — 
Thy  fitful  sunshine-minutes,  coming,  going, 
As  if  earth  turned  from  work  in  gamesome  mood — 
All  shall  be  mine !    But  thou  must  treat  me  not 
As  prosperous  ones  are  treated,  those  who  live 
At  hand  here,  and  enjoy  the  higher  lot. 
In  readiness  to  take  what  thou  wilt  give, 
And  free  to  let  alone  what  thou  refusest; 
For,  Day,  my  holiday,  if  thou  ill-usest 
Me,  who  am  only  Pippa, — old  year's  sorrow. 
Cast  off  last  night,  will  come  again  to-morrow: 
Whereas,  if  thou  prove  gentle,  I  shall  borrow 
Sufficient  strength  of  thee  for  new-year's  sorrow. 

'Pippa  Passes.'     Browning. 

At  half -past  seven  a  little  door  opened,  and  a  Salvation 
Army  soldier  stuck  out  his  head.  "Ayn't  no  sense 
blockin'  the  wy  up  that  wy,"  he  said.  "Those  as  'as 
tickets  cawn  come  hin  now,  an'  those  as  'asn't  cawn't 
come  hin  till  nine." 

Oh,  that  breakfast!  Nine  o'clock!  An  hour  and  a 
half  longer!  The  men  who  held  tickets  were  greatly 
envied.  They  were  permitted  to  go  inside,  have  a  wash, 
and  sit  down  and  rest  until  breakfast,  while  we  waited 
for  the  same  breakfast  on  the  street. — The  People  of  the 
Abyss,  Jack  London,  123. 


IDEAL  ASPECT  OF  INTEREST         215 

I  well  remember  the  first  over-land  mail.  It  was 
brought  by  Kit  Carson  in  saddle-bags  from  Taos  in 
New  Mexico.  We  heard  of  his  arrival  at  Los  Angeles, 
and  waited  patiently  for  his  arrival  at  headquarters. 
His  fame  then  was  at  its  height,  from  the  publication 
of  Fremont's  books,  and  I  was  very  anxious  to  see  a  man 
who  had  achieved  such  feats  of  daring  among  the 
wild  animals  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  still  wilder 
Indians  of  the  Plains.  At  last  his  arrival  was  reported 
at  the  tavern  of  Monterey,  and  I  hurried  to  hunt  him 
up.  I  cannot  express  my  surprise  at  beholding  a  small, 
stoop-shouldered  man,  with  reddish  hair,  freckled  face, 
soft  blue  eyes,  and  nothing  to  indicate  courage  or  daring. 
He  spoke  but  little,  and  answered  questions  in  mono- 
syllables.— Memoirs  of  Gen.  W,  T.  Sherman,  1:74-75. 

You  know  what  a  university  is,  and  a  university  de- 
gree.'* It  is  the  necessary  hall-mark  of  a  man  who  wants 
to  do  anything  in  teaching.  My  scheme,  or  dream,  is 
to  be  a  university  graduate,  and  then  to  be  ordained. 
By  going  to  live  at  Christminster,  or  near  it,  I  shall 
be  at  headquarters,  so  to  speak,  and  if  my  scheme  is 
practicable  at  all,  I  consider  that  being  on  the  spot 
will  afford  me  a  better  chance  of  carrying  it  out  than 
I  should  have  elsewhere. — Jude  the  Obscurey  Thomas 
Hardy,  4. 

2.  Experimental. 

At  an  election  of  officers  or  public  officials,  note 
expressions  which  denote  an  interest  in  the  outcome. 
Observe  the  trend  of  the  discussions,  the  associations 
which  are  aroused,  the  ideas  which  are  uttered,  etc. 


216  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

In  looking  through  the  pages  of  a  'Reader's  Hand- 
book,' or  a  reference  book  of  'Phrase  and  Fable'  do  you 
stop  at  parts  and  read  on?  Why  do  you  stop  at  some 
names,  references,  etc.,  and  not  at  others?  What  are  the 
associations  which  determine  the  halting  places,  centers 
of  interest,  etc.? 

When  you  are  interested  in  some  situation,  as,  a 
vacation  trip,  a  story,  a  piece  of  work,  etc.,  note  the 
associations  which  are  revived,  the  time  to  which  they 
refer,  their  connection  with  the  situation  in  the  focus 
of  attention,  and  the  like. 

Why  do  you  work  the  number  of  hours  which  you 
do?  Is  it  the  work  itself  which  impels  you  to  further 
effort?  How  is  such  work  connected  with  the  future? 
What  is  the  aim  of  the  work?  What  aspects  make  this 
aim  agreeable  and  satisfying?  What  associations  re- 
volve about  the  aim? 

Note  the  different  interests  which  stimulate  your  ef- 
forts. Compare  one  with  the  other.  Note  the  associa- 
tions clustered  about  each.  What  are  the  means  to 
which  you  attend  and  which  hold  your  interest  because 
they  point  to  a  possibility  of  realising  one  or  the  other 
ends  in  view?  How  have  these  means  been  amplified? 
Have  you  reflected  on  them,  used  words,  diagrams,  etc., 
to  give  you  a  better  view  of  the  situation  towards  which 
you  are  working? 

§  III.  DEVELOPMENT 

\/  The  development  of  the  cognitive  elements 
in  interest  is  from  impression  to  image,  and  from 


i 


IDEAL  ASPECT  OF  INTEREST  217 

image  to  organised  thought.  The  residual  traces 
which  are  left  by  pleasing  or  satisfying  situa- 
tions form  a  basis  for  imaginative  and  other, 
more  orderly,  cognitive  control.  Visual,  audi- 
tory, tactile,  and  similar  residua  are  left  both 
by  the  impressions  which  come  from  the  object 
or  situation  and  by  the  manipulation  and  control 
which  are  attempted.  According  as  experience 
has  been  more  or  less  extensive,  traces  may  be 
deposited  giving  a  basis  for  a  series  of  connected 
images  or  a  train  of  thought. 

Primary,  secondary  and  acquired  interest.  In 
the  more  elementary  stages  of  development,  sim- 
ple objects  or  situations  which  have  already 
excited  feelings  of  pleasure,  satisfaction,  etc., 
will,  upon  representation,  arouse  ideas  and 
images  of  the  terminal  moment  towards  which 
control  of  them  will  lead.  Continued  experience 
with  similar  situations  will  form  the  basis  of 
numerous  associations.  The  mere  idea  or  name 
may  then  excite  interest  in  so  far  as  the  idea  or 
name  is  linked  with  associations  which  are  con- 
nected with  a  pleasurable  terminus.  An  object, 
which,  when  controlled,  manipulated,  etc.,  yields 
pleasure  or  satisfaction,  will  leave  traces  which 
will  constitute  the  basis  of  further  meaning. 
When  the  object  is  again  seen,  it  will  excite  such 


218  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

traces  and  become  clothed  with  an  interest  by 
virtue  of  the  residua  which  have  been  stamped  in 
and  intensified  by  the  f eehngs  which  the  previ- 
ous control  has  excited.  Since  the  object  and  its 
control  yielded  pleasure  and  satisfaction  on  one 
occasion,  the  probability  is  that  it  will  do  like- 
wise upon  another.  Hence  it  has  fuller  meaning 
and  is  looked  upon  with  interest.  As  experience 
with  such  an  object  widens,  the  object  may  suc- 
ceed in  rousing  images  and  ideas  of  pleasing  and 
satisfying  moments  to  which  it  is  able  to  lead. 
A  child's  interest  in  a  toy,  a  mechanic's  interest 
in  a  tool,  an  adult's  interest  in  a  scene  connected 
with  his  childhood  days, — all  are  of  this  charac- 
ter. In  the  negative  the  same  holds  true.  If 
a  situation  or  object  has  yielded  dissatisfaction  or 
pain,  it,  too,  will  revive  a  meaning,  or  images  or 
ideas  which  repel  instead  of  attract.  That  the 
burnt  child  dreads  fire  is  well  known. 

Should  there  be  a  gap  between  the  present 
situation  and  a  desired  terminus,  both  terminus 
and  present  are  studied,  worked  over,  recon- 
structed, and  tried  in  various  ways  -so  that  the 
ideal  means  to  bridge  the  gap  may  be  evolved. 
The  end  to  be  attained,  the  object  desired,  the 
situation  to  be  controlled,  or  what  not,  may  be 
removed  either  in  place,  in  time,  or  in  both.  Thus 


IDEAL  ASPECT  OF  INTEREST         219 

an  individual  may  desire  to  get  at  the  contents 
of  a  trunk,  or  case,  or  may  try  to  recover  an 
object  which  has  been  thrown  over  a  fence  or 
across  a  stream.  The  present  situation  under 
immediate  control  will  be  tested  and  examined, 
means  will  be  sought  to  bridge  the  gap  between 
the  present  and  the  future  moment  to  be  realised, 
connections  will  be  worked  out,  and  so  on.  The 
individual,  for  example,  may  seek  information  of 
others,  may  think  of  implements,  may  try  to 
recollect  similar  occasions,  may  search  the  vicin- 
ity for  material,  and  so  on.  Interest  centers 
in  the  means  because  of  their  connection  with 
the  end  in  view. 

The  end  may  be  a  potential  one  and  may 
exist  in  the  more  or  less  distant  future.  At  least 
there  is  a  strong  belief  in  the  possibility  of  its 
existence  and  realisation.  Such  an  end  may  be 
ideally  constructed  out  of  present  experience, 
from  contact  with  others,  reading,  observation, 
and  the  like.  The  individual  may  then  desire 
realisation  of  his  aim,  and  may  set  about  con- 
structing means  and  molding  the  present  for  the 
purpose.  He  may  desire  a  position  of  responsi- 
bility, promotion,  material  goods,  or  what  not. 
He  may  plan  further  study  and  work,  may  con- 
sider the  advisability  of  joining  societies  and 


220  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

organisations,  etc.  We  may  have  a  whole  chain 
of  connected  aims,  one  leading  to  the  other,  and 
each  realised  by  a  series  of  means.  Thus,  A 
may  lead  to  B,  B  to  C,  C  to  D,  and  so  on.  A 
student,  for  example,  may  be  interested  in  his- 
tory. If  history  means  for  such  a  person  possi- 
ble intellectual  occupation,  passing  of  pleasant 
hours,  etc.,  the  interest  is  primary,  or  perhaps 
acquired.  But  his  interest  in  history  may  be 
secondary.  He  may  see  in  history  the  possibility 
of  passing  an  examination.  Passing  of  the  ex- 
amination may  mean  possession  of  a  certificate 
or  degree.  Possession  of  a  certificate  or  degree 
may  mean  eligibility  for  another  examination, 
and  so  on,  to  some  ultimate  realisation,  as,  ap- 
pointment to  a  position,  winning  of  honors,  etc. 
This  state  of  affairs  can  be  paralleled  in  business, 
in  the  home,  and  elsewhere.  Interest  in  means 
which  aid  in  realising  any  of  the  ends  in  view  is 
then  secondary.  Many  of  our  interests  are  of 
this  nature. 

In  the  course  of  the  various  processes  leading 
to  the  ultimate  realisation,  none  of  the  means 
may  have  had  any  interest  or  pleasure,  per  se. 
In  fact,  some  of  them  may  have  been  repelling. 
During  the  process  of  attention  to  these  means, 
however,  sufficient  facts,  etc.,  may  remain  to 


IDEAL  ASPECT  OF  INTEREST         221 

form  the  basis  for  the  appreciation  of  new  mat- 
ter. One  who  studies  history  from  altogether 
ulterior  motives  may  thus  come  to  find  an  interest 
in  it  as  such.  So,  too,  habits  of  attention  to  the 
means  may  persist  and  interest  in  them  remain. 
One  who  is  accustomed  to  doing  work  for  a  con- 
siderable length  of  time  will  finally  come  to  feel 
unrest  and  disturbance  if  such  work  is  not  forth- 
coming. To  regain  ease  and  quiescence,  the 
work  will  again  be  desired,  and  an  effort  will  be 
put  forth  to  obtain  fuller  control.  Interest  of 
such  a  sort  is  acquired.  It  differs  from  primary 
interest  only  in  the  fact  that  it  is  the  result  of 
secondary  interest,  the  residua  of  the  latter. 

§  IV.  EXPLANATION 

The  rise  of  interest  is  dependent  upon  the 
instincts  and  feelings  of  the  individual,  and  upon 
the  copies  and  selection  of  the  social  group  in 
which  the  individual  moves.  The  former  aspect 
has  been  treated  in  the  preceding  chapter.  The 
importance  of  social  guidance  and  selection  re- 
mains to  be  considered.  The  models  which  are 
before  an  individual  give  form  and  direction  to 
his  instinctive  behavior,  and  social  approval  aids 
in  stamping  in  some  reaction  to  the  exclusion  of 
others.    The  difference  between  the  interests  of 


\ 


222  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

the  slum  child  and  those  of  his  more  refined 
brother  are  due  to  a  great  extent  to  the  difference 
in  the  environments  which  surround  them. 
There  is  no  reason  why  the  slum  child  should 
mangle  his  pronunciation,  slip  in  a  patois  and 
slang,  and  develop  interests  which  are  not  sanc- 
tioned by  society  at  large,  other  than  the  stifling 
environment  which  surrounds  him,  and  the  in- 
difference of  the  school,  which  looks  upon  his 
acquirements  as  good  enough  for  him,  and  which 
often  passes  him  through  its  walls,  illiterate,  un- 
refined, slovenly,  and  ignorant,  but  good  at  heart 
and  anxious  to  absorb  the  best,  if  only  he  is 
given  the  opportunity  to  come  within  its  influ- 
ence. Let  *crap  shooting'  and  profanity  be  the 
*style'  in  a  neighborhood,  and  innocent  children 
will  follow  copy  without  intending  harm  or 
knowing  the  significance  of  their  actions  as 
judged  by  more  cultured  individuals.  Let  the 
school  accept  slovenly  expression,  and  careless,  , 
dirty  work,  and  it  gives  its  approval  to  results 
which  even  the  child  himself  would  not  hand  in, 
if  trained  for  a  time  by  proper  guidance  and 
selection.  In  a  statistical  study  of  the  influ- 
ences which  determined  the  pursuits  of  English 
men  of  science,  Galton  found  the  following: 


IDEAL  ASPECT  OF  INTEREST         223 

Number  Due  to 

59     Innate  tastes  {mem:  not  necessarily  hereditary). 
11     Fortunate  accidents.    It  will  be  noticed  that  these 

generally  testify  to  the  existence  of  an  innate 

taste. 

19  Indirect  opportunities  and  indirect  motives. 
24     Professional  influences  to  exertion. 

34     Encouragement  at  home  of  scientific  inclinations. 

20  Influence  and  encouragement  of  private  friends 

and  acquaintances. 
13     Influence  and  encouragement  of  teachers. 
8     Travel  in  distant  regions. 
3     Residual  influences,  unclassed.^ 

No  doubt,  for  individuals  who  are  exception- 
ally efficient,  or  exceptionally  depraved,  envi- 
ronment can  not  do  as  much  as  in  normal  cases. 
Such  exceptional  cases,  however,  are  compar- 
atively few.  For  the  great  mass  of  normal 
individuals,  and  for  the  extensive  level  of  com- 
mon, every-day  actions  and  interests,  environ- 
ment plays  the  most  important  part.^ 

^  Galton,  Francis,  English  Men  of  Science,  149. 

'On  the  influence  of  individual  and  social  imitation,  see: 
Baldwin,  J.  M.,  Ment.  Dev.  in  the  Child  and  the  Race,  and  Soc. 
and  Eth.  Int.  Bagehot,  Walter,  Physics  and  Politics.  Tarde,  G., 
The  Laws  of  Imitation,  Eng.  tr.  by  Elsie  Clews  Parsons.  Ross, 
E.  A.,  Social  Psychology.  See  also  the  discussion  in  the  previous 
chapter,  sections  III  and  IV,  and  in  Chapter  III. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
RECAPITULATION 

§  I.  DEFINITION  OF  INTEREST 

Interest  may  be  briefly  defined  as  follows: 
Interest  is  an  attitude  taken  towards  a 
situation,  and  characterised  (1)  by  motor 
tendencies  and  feelings  of  expectation, 
anticipation,  and  strain,  (2)  by  meaning 
implicit  in  the  situation  or  by  free  images 
and  ideas,  and  (3)  by  a  reference  of  atti- 
tude and  ideal  content  to  some  future  con- 
dition of  the  self. 

The  kinds  of  interest  are,   (1)   curiosity,  (2) 
expectation,  and  (3)  conscious  desire. ; 

Curiosity  Expectation 

Situation     present     and  Situation      future      and 

partially  known  partially  unknown 

Desire 

Situation      future      and 

known 
Definite    effort    towards 

realisation 
Ideal     construction     of 
means  to  lead  to  end 

224 


RECAPITULATION 


225 


Motor 

Motor  attitude  felt  as 
innervation,  tendency, 
or  strain 


§  II.  OUTLINE  OF  ASPECTS 
Ideal 


Simple  awareness  in 
which  the  meaning  is 
merged  in  the  pre- 
sentation 

Single  image  or  idea  of 
a  future  moment 

System  of  ideas  present 
as  a  disposition  and 
evolved  as  a  series 


§  III.  OUTLINE  OF  STAGES 

The  stages  of  interest  are  (1)   primary,  (2) 
secondary,  and  (3)  acquired. 

Primary  Secondary 


A  present  situation  leads 
directly  to  feelings  of 
pleasure,  satisfaction, 
etc. 


Interest  inheres  in  means 
because  of  their  con- 
nection with  a  future 
situation  which  is  to 
result  in  feelings  of 
pleasure,  satisfaction, 
etc. 


Acquired 

Means  which  led  to  a 
pleasurable  situation, 
and  which  roused  a 
secondfi^^.  interest, 
nbld  interest  on  their 
owi^  account 


15 


226  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

The  direction  of  interest  in  all  its  stages  may 
be  positive  or  negative. 

Positive  Negative 

The  future  situation  is  The  future  situation  is 
one  of  pleasure,  satis-  one  of  pain,  dissatis- 
faction, etc.,  and  is  faction,  etc.,  and  is 
desired  avoided 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  when  the  direction  of  inter- 
est is  positive,  the  means  under  immediate  con- 
trol may  be  pleasurable  or  painful.  So  long  as 
the  terminus  is  pleasing,  satisfying,  etc.,  the 
interest  is  positive.  In  negative  interest,  the 
terminus  is  displeasing  or  dissatisfying,  and  is 
avoided.  In  such  a  case,  the  less  of  two  evils 
may  be  selected. 

§  IV.  INTEREST  AND  ATTENTION 

In  the  more  advanced  stages  of  development, 
interest  and  attention  run  together,  but  at  first, 
attention  is  somewhat  in  the  lead.  Conditions 
other  than  interest  are  able  to  impel  attention. 
Thus,  intensity  of  impression  and  feelings  of 
pleasure-pain  can  excite  primary  or  instinctive 
attention.  Interest  is  not  then  in  evidence.  But 
if  such  instinctive  attention  results  in  pleasure, 
ease,  satisfaction,  and  the  like,  it  lays  a  basis  of 
interest  in  such  a  situation.    When  the  situation 


RECAPITULATION 


227 


is  again  present  there  will  be  a  felt  tendency  to 
go  through  the  process  which  resulted  in  the 
former  feelings  of  pleasure  or  satisfaction.  In 
more  advanced  stages,  the  interest  and  the  atten- 
tion are  concomitant.  Interest  is  then  the  im- 
pelling aspect,  and  attention  the  controlling. 

INTEREST  ATTENTION 

Motor  Motor 

Felt  attitude  which  tends  Accommodations  and  ad- 


to    realise     a     future 

justments     for     more 

state 

perfect    control   of   a 

situation 

Ideal 

Ideal 

Mental   construction    of 

Mental  reinforcement  of 

the  future  moment  to 

incoming  impressions. 

be    realised,    existing 

and  ideal  guidance  of 

as  fringe  of  meaning, 

motor  control 

simple    awareness,    or 

as  free  ideation 

Objective 

Objective 

Value  or  worth 

Clearness    and    distinct- 

ness 


§V.  INTEREST  AND   FEELING 

The  following  characteristics  of  interest  and 
feeling  may  be  noted: 


Interest 

Reference  to  the  future 
Motor  attitude 
Feeling   of   anticipation 
and  strain 


Feeling 

Existence  in  the  present 
Passive  moment 
Feeling  of  pleasure-pain, 
satisfaction,  ease,  etc. 


228  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

§  VI.  INTEREST  AND   EFFORT 

Interest  impels  effort.  In  that  an  individual 
is  before  a  situation  which  will,  when  properly 
controlled,  lead  to  a  state  of  pleasure,  ease,  and 
the  like,  eiFort  will  be  put  forth.  There  need  be 
no  immediate  pleasure  or  satisfaction  in  such 
control,  so  long  as  the  final  realisation  is  more  or 
less  pleasurable  and  satisfying.  If  the  terminus 
is  more  painful  than  the  present  situation,  effort 
will  likewise  be  shown,  so  long  as  such  effort 
leads  from  the  repelling  situation.  In  such  a 
case  there  is  no  positive  gain,  and  the  terminus 
is  one  only  in  a  negative  sense.  Whatever  can 
be  associated  with  an  end  which  is  felt  to  have 
worth  and  value  will  tend  to  stimulate  effort.  If 
the  means,  in  addition  to  leading  to  a  pleasurable 
end,  possess  an  interest  of  their  own,  greater 
effort  will  be  put  forth.  Effort  is  nothing  more 
than  the  subjective  and  felt  aspect  of  motor 
control  in  the  process  of  attention. 


PART  III 
EDUCATION 


/ 


I 


Part  III 
Education 


) 


CHAPTER  IX 

ATTENTION  IN  THE  CLASSROOM 

§  I.  THE  GIVEN  SITUATION 

It  seems  almost  self-evident  that,  to  be  atten- 
tive, the  child  must  have  something  definite  to 
which  it  can  attend.     The  situation,  moreover, 
to  which  the  child  is  supposed  to  attend,  must  be 
controlled  in  full  by  the  pupil,  if  attention  is  to 
be  wholly  present.     This  implies   (1)    that  the 
child  must  be  able  to  react  to  the  object  or  situaA 
tion  in  a  sensorimotor  manner,  and  (2)  that  such 
reaction  and  control  must  correspond  in  some  / 
degree  to  the  character  and  intent  of  the  situa-J 
tion  in  question.     Practical  classroom  examples 
will  further  elucidate  these  truths. 

Arithmetic.  In  primary  work,  each  child  should  be 
busy  pleasuring  desk,  books,  paper,  etc.,  under  guidance 
of  the  teacher.  Colored  paper  should  be  folded,  cut, 
measured,  and  marked  by  e  ich  child.  Each  child  should 
be  asked  to  measure  the  rooms  at  home,  to  count  the 
windows  in  the  classroom,  to  find  out  by  his  own  efforts 
how  many  feet  or  inches  high  he  is,  and  the  like.     In 

231 


232  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

number  drill,  each  child  should  be  given  a  chance  to 
recite  individually.  The  children  should  be  called  up  in 
rows,  and  each  one  should  be  rapidly  asked  the  answer 
of  a  problem  of  the  type  given.  Written  work  on 
type  problems  and  examples  might  be  required.  In 
spatial  measurements,  space  should  be  measured,  and 
not  verbal  descriptions  given  by  the  teacher.  In 
counting,  actual  concrete  series  should  be  counted, 
and  not  barren,  meaningless,  verbal  symbols.  In  inter- 
mediate and  grammar  grade  instruction,  a  similar  policy 
should  be  followed  with  greater  emphasis  on  the  abstract 
aspects  of  the  problems.  Thus,  explanation  of  problems 
which  involve  spatial  measurements,  necessitates  con- 
struction of  rooms,  fields,  etc.,  in  paper,  measurements 
worked  out  on  such  paper,  etc.  Fractions  should  be 
taught  by  having  each  pupil  break  up  unitary  wholes 
into  equal  parts.  Drill  on  such  work  requires  the  solution 
of  a  number  of  problems  by  the  pupils.  Such  problems 
should  be  of  the  type  explained.  The  visual  presentation 
on  the  blackboard  is  good,  but  it  neglects  the  motor 
phase  of  attention. 

Spelling,  In  writing,  one  sees  the  words  as  one  writes 
them.  Spelling  should  therefore  be  taught  with  em- 
phasis upon  the  visual  and  the  motor.  Write  ten  or 
fifteen  words  on  the  board,  in  columns  of  five  or  ten. 
Let  the  children  write  them  on  paper.  Then  require 
the  pupils  to  look  at  the  words,  look  again  with  emphasis 
on  difficult  combinations  of  letters,  close  their  eyes  and 
try  to  see  the  words.  Do  this  once  or  twice.  Have  them 
repeat  the  spelling  of  the  words  out  loud,  three  or  four 


ATTENTION  IN  THE  CLASSROOM     233 

times.  Finally,  let  the  words  be  written  two  or  three 
times  each.  If  the  children  are  tested,  it  will  be  found 
that  very  few  will  fail.  Those  who  miss  should  be 
required  to  write  the  misspelled  words  five  or  ten  times 
each.  This  method  can  be  applied  to  the  memorising  of 
lists  of  any  kind,  of  outlines,  of  tables  in  arithmetic, 
etc.  It  should  replace  the  monotonous  concert  recitation 
still  in  evidence  in  many  classrooms. 

Reading.  Content,  If  possible,  the  meaning  of  a 
piece  should  be  acted  out  by  each  pupil.  The  child 
should  be  asked  to  do  what  the  piece  sets  forth.  He 
should  be  required  to  draw  out  his  own  interpretation 
of  what  the  selection  describes.  He  should  try  to  con- 
struct the  situation  according  to  the  directions  given. 
In  addition,  pictures,  diagrams,  etc.,  should  be  shown 
by  the  teacher.  Last  of  all  should  come  the  verbal 
explanation  and  lecturing  still  too  common  in  the 
classroom. 

In  teaching  the  meaning  and  use  of  words,  a  similar 
method  should  be  followed  by  the  teacher.  In  addition, 
the  teacher  should  require  the  pupils  to  make  some  at- 
tempt to  use  the  words  in  their  daily  conversation,  in 
their  compositions,  etc.  They  should  be  urged  to  read 
periodicals,  papers,  etc.,  for  the  purpose  of  finding  sen- 
tences which  have  the  words  in  question.  They  should 
keep  clippings  and  paste  them  in  blank  books.  They 
should  so  construct  sentences  that  the  meaning  of  the 
word  is  made  clear  from  the  context.  Such  masters  of 
style,  as  Addison,  Irving,  etc.,  should  be  expounded,  and 
an  analysis  of  their  method  of  explaining  words  by 


234  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

context,  should  be  made  by  the  teacher.  Each  pupil 
should  be  required  to  find  other  words  which  will  take 
the  place  of  the  word  selected.  In  reading,  the  pupil 
should  be  required  to  find  other  words  which  will  take 
the  place  of  the  one  before  him  in  the  text. 

Reading,  Expression,  Each  pupil  should  be  allowed 
to  read.  Teach  only  five  or  ten  pupils  at  a  time  and 
give  the  rest  busy  work  of  some  kind,  as  writing  of 
spelling  words,  tables,  etc.,  illustration  in  color  of  some 
story,  test  or  examination.  In  teaching  proper  expres- 
sion to  the  group  under  immediate  supervision,  repeat 
the  word  aloud,  show  the  pupil  how  to  shape  the  lips, 
place  the  tongue,  and  the  like.  Write  the  more  difficult 
words  and  phrases  on  the  board  and  let  each  pupil  read 
them.  Correct  any  errors  in  enunciation  or  pronunci- 
ation. Give  words  similar  to  the  ones  on  the  board. 
Show  cards  on  which  such  words  are  written,  and  let 
each  child  repeat  the  word  as  soon  as  it  is  shown.  Since 
reading  involves  the  rapid  expression  of  visual  symbols 
in  articulatory  terms,  the  words  and  sentences  should  be 
read  off  at  once  without  the  interpolation  of  explana- 
tions, reasons,  or  what  not.  Let  each  child  then  read  a 
sentence  or  so  from  the  reader  or  the  blackboard.  Stop 
any  slovenly  expression  and  call  upon  the  child  again  if 
he  fails  to  give  the  proper  expression. 

/      Geography,    If  the  surface  of  the  country  is  explained 
(    let  each  child  model  a  map  in  clay  or  papier  mdche,^   See 

^Papier  mdche  is  readily  made.  Take  a  newspaper,  and  cut 
it  into  small  pieces.  Let  it  soak  over  night  in  water.  Have  a 
child  pound  it  for  some  time  with  a  stick  or  stone.    Mix  a  little 


ATTENTION  IN  THE  CLASSROOM     235 

that  the  child  makes  an  actual  slope,  tableland,  mountain, 
etc.  If  the  pupil  makes  a  mountain  like  a  stone  fence, 
show  him  that  the  water  will  not  drain  off  and  form  a 
river,  but  will  collect  in  a  lake  or  swamp.  Connect 
such  models  with  the  proper  names.  Thus,  tell  the 
pupil  to  make  his  eiver  basin  slope  more,  or  his  Car- 
pathian Mountains  higher,  or  his  Sicily  more  trian- 
gular and  so  on. 

Let  each  pupil  classify  the  industries,  materials  used, 
etc.  Let  him  collect  labels  on  cases,  cans,  etc.  Have  him 
draw  or  trace  a  map  and  paste  on  it  the  different  pro- 
ducts. Let  him  indicate  with  colored  lines  the  lands 
to  which  the  products  go.  Have  him  construct  lists  and 
outlines  of  such  products,  exports,  imports,  and  the  like. 
Require  him  to  map  out  railroad  lines,  steamship  routes, 
etc.,  and  name  them,  indicating  also  the  cities  which  are 
railroad  centers,  ports,  etc.  Have  him  construct  lists 
of  the  same. 

Let  the  pupils  study  the  location  and  names  of  cities, 
rivers,  etc.,  in  the  manner  above  suggested  for  spelling. 
Draw  an  outline  map  on  the  blackboard.  Mark  and 
name  the  important  cities.  Let  the  pupils  visualise  the 
map  and  the  marks  which  indicate  the  cities.  Let  the 
children  copy  the  outline,  etc.,  on  paper.  A  rough 
draft  will  do.  Rub  out  the  names  on  the  board,  leaving 
the  marks  indicating  the  cities.  Call  up  the  pupils,  one 
at  a  time,  and  have  each  child  point  to  the  map  when 
the  name  of  the  city  is  called  out.     Let  the  pupils  in 

flour-paste  or  mucilage  with  the  pulp.  Press  this  on  the  board 
with  the  thumb.  To  insure  adhesion,  coat  the  board  with  mucilage 
or  glue. 


236  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

their  seats  watch  and  compare  the  answer  with  the  maps 
before  them.  Do  this  in  the  case  of  rivers,  lakes,  etc. 
Test  the  pupils  by  having  them  write  the  name  of  the 
city,  etc.,  when  you  point  to  the  map,  call  out  the 
location,  etc. 

^History.  Let  the  children  act  out  some  historical 
f  incident  or  event.  Assign  parts  to  a  group  of  children, 
^  and  let  the  rest  write  a  report  on  the  characters,  what 
they  say,  the  surroundings,  etc.  Let  each  pupil  make 
a  drawing  of  the  event,  with  the  necessary  names,  dates, 
etc.  Have  the  pupils  construct  outlines  which  indicate 
a  series  of  events  in  logical  connection.  Place  an  outline 
on  the  blackboard  and  have  each  pupil  expand  it  in 
composition  form.  Require  each  pupil  to  take  his  book 
and  trace  a  series  of  connected  events,  as,  the  events 
leading  to  establishment  of  the  British  Parliament,  the 
territorial  expansion  of  the  United  States,  etc.  Let  him 
give  the  names  connected  with  such  events,  the  men  as- 
sociated with  them,  the  dates,  and  so  on.  Assign  each 
pupil  to  some  topic,  and  let  him  read  up  on  it  and  report 
to  the  class.  Post  his  report,  or  a  summary  of  it,  on  a 
bulletin  board.  Let  him  read  it  to  the  class.  Mimeo- 
graph it  and  give  each  pupil  a  copy  of  it.  Have  each 
pupil  draw  the  necessary  maps,  with  names,  dates,  etc. 

Science,  Let  each  pupil  do  the  experiment  and  make 
his  own  apparatus,  if  possible.  Crude  material  will  do 
for  the  simpler  experiments.  The  old-fashioned  'ob- 
ject lesson'  is  being  replaced  by  laboratory  work.  Do 
not  require  an  inference  until  a  number  of  experiments 
has   been  performed,   or  until  an  intensive  study   has 


ATTENTION  IN  THE  CLASSROOM     237 

been  made  of  a  few  experiments.  Thus,  in  the  study 
of  the  action  of  gravity,  the  different  tests,  as,  weight 
of  bodies,  pendulum,  etc.,  all  lead  to  a  similar  inference. 
This  inference  should  not  be  asked  for  till  the  whole 
series  of  experiments  has  been  made. 

Nature  study.  Let  each  child  plant  a  seed  in  a  small 
flower  pot.  Let  every  pupil  handle  a  flower,  or  a  twig, 
or  the  fur  of  an  animal,  or  what  not.  Urge  every  pupil 
to  bring  in  specimens,  as  stones,  wood,  seeds,  etc.  Let 
each  class  have  a  small  space  in  the  school  garden  for  its 
own  use.  Let  each  class  have  one  or  two  boxes  filled 
with  earth  for  the  same  purpose.  Take  the  children  on 
excursions  to  the  zoo,  the  park,  the  green  fields,  and  the 
streams  in  the  neighborhood.  Use  pictures  only  when 
it  is  impossible  to  allow  the  child  to  handle  the  objects 
in  question.  Verbal  descriptions  are  almost  worthless. 
If  the  class  is  to  study  rainfall,  let  the  children  look  out 
of  the  window.  Point  out  the  clouds.  Show  the  direc- 
tion of  the  wind  by  hanging  a  streamer  outside.  Wait 
for  a  rainy  day  if  necessary.  Reenforce  such  instruc- 
tion by  requiring^  the  pupils  to  draw  what  they  have 
seen  or  handled.  Let  them  draw  the  growing  plant  in 
color.  Let  them  outline  the  passage  of  water  through 
its  forms,  as,  river,  vapor,  clouds,  rain,  etc.  Each  pupil 
should  be  required  to  do  this. 

Grammar.  Let  each  pupil  work  on  type  sentences, 
parts  of  speech,  etc.  Have  every  child  construct  a  num- 
ber of  sentences  like  the  model.  Have  him  fill  in  blanks. 
Let  him  diagram  according  to  model.  Call  up  the  class, 
one  row  at  a  time,  and  have  each  pupil  give  the  kind 


238  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

of  a  sentence  required,  some  word  used  properly,  and 
the  like.  Definition  should  come  last  of  all.  At  times 
it  is  unnecessary.  Use  the  method  of  multiple  sense 
appeal  which  is  suggested  in  the  case  of  spelling. 

The  above  directions  are  by  no  means  complete. 
They  are  simply  suggestive  of  numerous  other 
devices  which  any  teacher  can  outline.     The  fol- 
lowing points  should  be  kept  in  mind:  (1)  I^et 
yfeach  child  have  some  object  or  situation  under 
/his  immediate  control.     (2)  Let  each  child  react 
/   towards  such  situation  in  a  sensorimotor  manner, 
/    Le,,  let  him  visualise  it  carefully,  handle  it,  de- 
/      scribe  it  verbally,  etc.     (3)  Facilitate  such  con- 
\     trol  by  having  material  ready,  lessons  carefully 
\  planned,  and  so  on. 

§  II.  FACILITATION 

1.  Simplicity.     The   work   in   each   subject 

should  be  carefully  mapped  out  by  the  teacher. 

/  A  logical  outline  should  be  made,  including,  ( 1 ) 

'   a  series  of  connected  topics,  causally  arranged, 

/     (2)  references  to  standard  authorities,  and  (3) 

/     possible  correlations  with  other  subjects  in  the 

grade.    In  addition  there  should  be  a  daily  plan 

\     of  the  work  to  be  covered  during  the  day.    Such 

\    a  plan  should  be  brief,  and  should  have  (1)  defi- 

\  nite  topics  in  each  subject  which  is  to  receive 


Uh 


ATTENTION  IN  THE  CLASSROOM     239 

attention  during  the  day,  (2)  type  sentences, 
problems,  experiments,  etc.,  and  (3)  mention  of 
the  method  to  be  used  in  each  of  the  subjects,  as, 
development,  drill,  or  what  not.  The  daily  plan 
will  ensure  some  degree  of  unitary  simplicity, 
and  the  term  plan  some  degree  of  sequential 
simplicity.  In  addition,  the  principal  of  the 
school  should  confer  with  the  teachers  and  unify 
the  work  of  the  school  in  the  different  subjects. 
The  emphasis  should  be  about  the  same  in  the 
subjects  all  along  the  line.  Where  one  class  is 
receiving  instruction  in  one  phase  of  arithmetic, 
for  example,  and  another  class  of  the  same  grade 
is  doing  work  very  much  different,  the  pupils  of 
these  classes  will  hardly  be  ready  to  assimilate 
instruction  in  the  next  grade  where  perhaps  an- 
other scheme  of  instruction  is  pursued  and  a 
different  emphasis  is  placed.  The  daily  plan  is 
now  recognised  as  a  necessity,  and  its  absence  as 
an  indication  of  laxity,  and  generally  of  ineffi- 
ciency. When  the  teacher  will  give  helter-skelter 
instruction  with  intermissions  of  vituperation,  the 
pupils  will  not  be  in  the  best  condition  to  attend 
to  the  matter  before  them.  Too  many  points  are 
flashed  before  them,  there  is  no  persistent  pre- 
sentation of  a  single  topic,  and  often  the  things 
which  they  should  not  learn  are  carefully  at- 


240  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

tendea  to,  e,g,,  errors,  wrong  forms,  incorrect 
models,  etc.  The  teacher  should  carefully  cut 
up  the  subject  matter  into  small  portions,  and 
use  every  aid  possible  to  make  it  clear,  as,  graphic 
outline,  illustration,  blackboard  summary,  etc. 
He  should  hold  himself  down  to  the  topic  at 
hand  and  should  patiently  present  it  in  as  many 
ways  as  possible.  For  this,  careful  preparation 
is  necessary. 

2.  Quality  of  the  impression.    Sharp,  clear, 

mnd  clean-cut  presentation  should  be  the  general 

[rule  in  teaching.     If  the  blackboard  is  used,  it 

should  be  washed  with  ink,  or  ink  and  water,  to 

ensure  a  good  background.    The  writing  should 

<  be  firm  and  neat.    No  children  should  be  allowed 

/  to  write  matter  which  is  to  be  studied  or  copied 

\  by  the  others.    Important  parts  should  be  written 

in  brightly   colored   chalk,    as,   orange,  yellow, 

green,  or  red.    Emphasis  might  also  be  secured 

by  underlining  or  boxing  in  colored  chalk.     If 

pencil  or  pen  is  to  be  used,  the  ink  should  be  free 

from  dirt,  the  pencils  long  and  properly  sharp- 

/ened.    In  speaking,  the  teacher  should  be  careful 

/  to  enunciate  distinctly,  and  to  express  himself 

\  carefully  and  accurately.     A  hurried,  careless, 

slovenly  manner  of  expression  tends  to  make  the 

\  children  careless  and  inattentive.     These  direc- 


ATTENTION  IN  THE  CLASSROOM     241 

tions  may  seem  trivial  and  unnecessary,  but  they 
often  make  the  difference  between  efficiency  and 
inefficiency  in  some  subjects.  Note  how  the 
pupils  will  look  at  the  board  if  there  is  a  neatly 
colored  outline  map  upon  it,  or  a  carefully 
arranged  summary.  One  can  hardly  blame  a 
pupil  for  looking  out  of  the  window  or  under 
the  desk  if  he  has  before  him  a  grey,  dusty  board, 
or  a  board  hurriedly  erased  and  having  upon  it 
scraps  and  fragments  of  a  former  presentation 
which  did  not  come  fully  beneath  the  board  rub- 
ber. The  same  is  true  in  other  aspects  of 
instruction. 

3.  Time.  Give  the  pupil  time  to  absorb  what  | 
is  being  presented.  Allow  some  time,  however 
small,  for  each  step  in  the  lesson,  from  the  pre- 
liminary signal  to  the  end  of  the  lesson.  Give 
the  signal,  'Ready,'  and  see  that  each  pupil  is 
ready.  Present  one  topic,  and  make  reasonably 
sure  that  it  has  been  properly  assimilated.  Pause 
a  moment,  and  quiz  half  a  dozen  pupils,  some 
poor,  some  medium.  Do  not  hurry  along,  anfls 
do  not  rest  satisfied  if  one  or  two  pupils  can' 
answer.  Do  not  fret  and  fume  if  the  results  of 
the  first  presentation  are  poor,  if  over  half  the 
class  misses,  if  the  per  cents  range  from  ten  to 
thirty.    Give  the  children  time  to  learn.    Present 

16 


242  ATTENTION  AND  INTEEEST 

the  same  topic  again,  with  perhaps  slight  addi- 
tions. Take  for  granted  that  children  learn  very 
slowly,  that  if  too  much  is  forced  upon  them, 
they  become  distracted,  or  coolly  indifferent. 
Remember  that  about  one  half  of  the  new  matter 
presented  is  forgotten  after  the  first  half  hour, 
two  thirds  in  nine  hours,  three  quarters  after  six 
days,  and  four  fifths  after  a  month.  Time  must 
be  taken  for  development,  time  for  review,  and 
time  for  drill. 

4.  Preadjustment.  Give  some  signal,  as, 
a  tap  or  a  word,  to  indicate  that  the  lesson  is  to 
follow.  Moreover,  see  that  the  signal  is  obeyed. 
Do  not  pass  from  one  lesson  to  another  without 
having  all  the  pupils  prepared  to  take  up 
the  new  work.  If  the  one  lesson  is  a  writing 
lesson,  and  the  following  is  a  geography  or 
a  history  lesson,  give  some  such  directions  as 
the  following:  Pencils  down.  Pass  papers. 
Books  away.  Take  modeling  boards.  And  so 
on.  Pause  slightly  after  each  direction.  See 
that  it  is  followed.  If  the  directions  are  given 
in  sharp,  military  fashion,  and  are  followed  by 
a  slight  pause,  they  impel  attention  and  set  the 
pupil  in  a  business-like  frame  of  mind.  If  neces- 
sary, make  sure  that  each  pupil  is  in  the  proper 
attitude  for  the  new  work,  by  passing  rapidly 


ATTENTION  IN  THE  CLASSROOM     243 

through  one  or  two  of  the  side  aisles.  If  the 
teacher  is  satisfied  to  talk  ahead  with  a  large 
percentage  of  the  children  playing  under  the 
desk,  writing,  finishing  up  the  previous  lesson, 
and  the  like,  much  of  his  work  will  be  wasted  as 
far  as  the  attention  of  the  pupils  is  concerned. 
Fixation  should  be  facilitated  by  having  a  defi- 
nite model  before  the  pupils,  by  calling  their 
attention  to  specific  aspects  of  it,  by  pointing  to 
the  parts  which  are  essential,  and  so  on.  A  series 
of  rapid  questions  will  aid  in  holding  the  children 
in  the  attitude  of  attention.  Note  the  external 
signs  of  preadjustment,  as,  head  erect,  eyes  look- 
ing at  the  object  before  them,  body  leaning 
slightly  forward,  etc.  Do  not  continue  the 
lesson  if  the  majority  of  the  pupils  are  not  in 
the  right  attitude  of  fixation. 

5.  Ideal  reinforcement.  Have  the  black- 
board covered  with  work  as  soon  as  the  pupils 
enter  the  room.  Examples  in  arithmetic  or 
grammar,  a  colored  map,  colored  designs  in 
drawing,  spelling  list,  etc.,  should  be  on  the 
board  before  the  pupils  come.  This  work  should 
be  connected  with  the  lessons  of  the  day.  Home 
work,  on  the  other  hand,  should  not  be  given  till 
the  close  of  the  day.  Pupils  can  not  be  expected 
to  attend  so  closely  to  the  lessons  of  the  day  if 


244  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

they  are  thinking  of  problems,  etc.,  to  be  done 
at  home.  Often  pupils  will  be  found  surrepti- 
tiously doing  such  home  work  under  the  desk. 
In  the  course  of  instruction,  use  the  experiences 
of  the  child  and  the  objects  of  the  immediate 
environment  in  making  clear  the  topics  of  the 
lesson.  The  streams  in  the  gutters,  the  lake  in 
the  park,  the  stones  of  the  school  or  other  build- 
ings, the  clothes  worn  by  the  children,  the  foods 
which  they  eat,  the  labels  and  marks  on  manu- 
factured articles,  etc.,  should  be  used  as  examples 
in  the  presentation  of  topics  in  geography,  etc. 
The  words  in  spelling  should  be  selected  from 
the  exercises  in  reading,  from  the  expressions 
used  in  arithmetic  and  grammar,  from  the  les- 
sons in  geography  and  history,  from  the  vocabu- 
lary which  the  children  ought  to  have,  etc.  Such 
lists  should  be  revised  each  term.  Composition 
should  be  based  on  work  of  the  term  which  has 
been  already  covered,  on  experiences  of  the  chil- 
dren, on  activities  which  are  within  the  child's 
understanding  and  which  are  taking  place  under 
his  eyes,  and  the  like.  The  teacher  should  try  to 
find  the  mental  background  which  will  best 
serve  to  hold  the  topic  in  the  focus  of  attention, 
which  will  best  enable  the  presentation  to  per- 
sist.    New  topics  which  have  little  connection 


ATTENTION  IN  THE  CLASSROOM     245 

with  the  experiences  or  the  environments  of  the 
children  will  have  little  chance  to  continue  in  the 
centre  of  the  attentive  field. 

6.  Practice.  Practice  is  necessary  to  enable 
ideal  backgrounds  to  persist,  and  to  make 
habitual  the  motor  coordinations  and  adjust- 
ments which  are  necessary  in  attention.  The  rate! 
of  forgettipg^  is  so  rapid  that  constant  drill  is/ 
necessary.  The  rules  for  drill  are  as  follows: 
(1)  Present  one  topic.  Allow  for  review  by 
giving  a  few  types  of  the  kind  already  pre- 
sented, but  let  the  body  of  the  lesson  deal  with 
the  topic  which  is  to  be  drilled  upon.  (2)  SecurA 
repetition.  Let  every  pupil  recite.  Call  the' 
class  up  in  rows  and  have  each  child  answer. 
Give  a  number  of  problems  or  examples  of  the 
same  kind,  and  let  the  children  work  them.  Let 
the  children  use  blank  maps  and  fill  in  railroad! 
centres  one  day,  industries  another,  etc.,  connect- 
ing one  with  the  other.  Present  similar  topics 
in  a  series  of  lessons.  Check  the  problems  or 
types  on  which  most  of  the  children  fail,  and  give 
them  again.  Use  the  method  of  multiple  sense 
appeal  in  fastening  essential  facts  in  the  diff*er- 
ent  subjects.      (3)    See  that  such  repetition  is 

-  See  Myers,  C.  S.,  A  Text-Book  of  Experimental  Psychology j 
Ch.  XIII. 


246  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

properly  distributed.  If  the  children  do  not 
seem  able  to  grasp  the  point  of  the  lesson  at  the 
end  of  half  an  hour,  do  not  continue  for  an  hour 
or  two  more.  Simplify  the  work  still  more,  wait 
for  a  day  or  two  and  try  again.  Give  intermis- 
sions so  that  the  children  can  rest.  If  two  hours 
are  to  be  spent  on  some  topic,  divide  the  time 
into  half  or  three-quarter  hour  periods  and 
spread  them  over  several  days.  ( 4 )  There  should 
be  a  mass  of  material  at  hand,  and  such  material 
should  deal  with  the  same  topic.  The  blackboard 
should  be  covered  with  work.  Numerous  speci- 
mens should  be  on  hand.  Copies  of  designs 
should  be  ready  for  distribution.  Whatever  be 
the  subject,  the  teacher  should  see  that  sufficient 
material  is  ready  for  illustration,  use,  or  what 
not.  No  teacher  should  be  satisfied  to  'know 
about  what  he  is  going  to  teach,'  or  to  'carry  the 
day's  work  in  his  head.'      (5)    Appeal  to  each 

/pupil  through  as  many  of  the  senses  as  possible. 

/  Let  the  children  visualise,  articulate,  express 
themselves  manually,  listen  to  the  presentation 
or  explanation,  etc.  Let  each  sensory  impres- 
sion be  followed  by  some  form  of  motor  ex- 
pression. Let  the  children  do  many  examples. 
Let  them  draw  or  model  many  maps.  Let  them 
answer  in  composition  form  when  writing  on 


ATTENTION  IN  THE  CLASSROOM     247 

historical  or  geographical  topics.  Let  them 
synopsise  and  expand  stories  which  have  heen 
illustrated,  read,  and  explained.  The  teacher 
should  plan  work  to  fit  the  different  senses,  and 
such  appeals  should  deal  with  the  same  topics.^ 

7.  Fatigue  and  pause.  So  that  the  children 
should  not  be  unnecessarily  fatigued  by  the  day's 
work,  some  consideration  should  be  given  to  the 
order  in  which  the  subjects  are  presented.  Con- 
struction of  a  proper  daily  schedule  involves  (1) 
the  physiological  rhythm  to  which  the  child  is 
subject,  (2)  the  relative  difficulty  of  the  sub- 
jects, (3)  the  length  of  the  period  during  which 
instruction  is  to  continue,  (4)  the  distribution 
of  periods  over  the  days  of  the  week,  (5)  the 
days  of  the  week  most  favorable  to  work,  (6) 
the  age  and  maturity  of  the  children,  and  (7) 
gerWflial  factors,  as,  the  weather,  the  rhythm  of 
energy  during  the  months  of  the  year,  etc. 

(a)  Daily  rhythm.  The  periods  of  the  day 
most  favorable  to  work  are  the  former  half  of 
the  morning  and  the  latter  half  of  the  afternoon. 
The  morning  period  again  is  better  than  the 
afternoon  period.  The  best  period  of  the  day 
is  from  nine  to  eleven  in  the  forenoon.     The 

"  See  Arnold,  F.,  Text-hook  of  School  and  Class  Marmgement, 
l:Ch.  V,  §111,  3. 


248  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

second  best  period  is  after  two  in  the  afternoon. 
The  end  of  the  morning  session  and  the  begin- 
ning of  the  afternoon  session  are  most  unfav- 
orable to  heavy  work.^ 

(&)  Relative  difficulty  of  subjects.  In  the 
order  given,  the  following  subjects  put  the  chil- 
dren to  the  greatest  strain:  (1)  exercises  which 
involve  muscular  effort,  as  gymnastics,  (2)  ab- 
stract and  formal  subjects,  as  arithmetic,  gram- 
mar, etc.,  and  (3)  thought  work  and  exercises 
which  involve  the  memory.  The  kinds  of  work 
which  require  less  energy  are,  (1)  manual  work, 
as  drawing,  construction,  etc.,  (2)  oral  work, 
and  (3)  work  which  involves  content  and  objec- 
tive phases  rather  than  formal,  as  geography, 
history,  literature,  etc.  No  subject  which  puts 
the  child  to  a  special  strain  should  be  given  at 
the  end  of  the  morning  or  the  beginning  of  the 
afternoon,  and  no  two  such  subjects  should  fol- 
low each  other. 

(c)  Length  of  periods.  The  length  of  a  les- 
son should  vary  between  fifteen  minutes  and  an 
hour  or  so.  Subjects  which  require  less  energy 
should  be  given  longer  periods  than  subjects 
which  are  more  difficult.    Forty  minutes  is  con- 

*See  O'Shea,  M.  V.,  Dynamic  Factors  in  Education,  286. 
Bagley,  W.  C,  The  Educative  Process,  340. 


ATTENTION  IN  THE  CLASSROOM     249 

sidered  a  normal  period  for  older  children,  and 
fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  one  for  younger  chil- 
dren. A  succession  of  short  periods  should  be 
avoided  if  possible,  as  this  tends  to  give  a 
choppy  effect  to  the  day's  work  and  to  produce 
restlessness. 

(d)  Difference  in  days,  Monday  and  Friday 
are  not  so  good  as  the  other  days  of  the  week. 
Less  difficult  subjects  should  be  given  on  these 
days.  Days  which  immediately  precede  or  fol- 
low holidays,  etc.,  are  also  not  good  for  difficult 
work. 

{e)  Maturity  of  the  children.  The  age  and 
maturity  of  the  children  will  condition  the  length 
of  the  periods,  the  number  of  intermissions  for 
physical  exercise,  the  length  of  time  for  recess, 
and  the  general  method  of  instruction  which  is 
to  be  followed.  There  should  be  a  two-minute 
setting-up  exercise  at  the  end  of  each  lesson. 
For  younger  children,  there  should  be  a  ten  or 
fifteen  minute  period  for  play  and  exercise  at 
about  half -past  ten,  and  a  similar  period  after 
two.  Primary  periods  of  instruction  should  run 
from  fifteen  minutes  to  half  or  three  quarters  of 
an  hour.  Grammar  or  intermediate  periods 
should  vary  between  three  quarters  of  an  hour 
and  an  hour  and  a  half. 


250  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

(/)  Weather  influences.  Sultry  days  and  hot 
days  are  not  favorable  to  heavy  work.  The 
beginning  of  a  snow  storm  makes  the  children 
restless.  Days  which  are  cold  and  clear  are  fav- 
orable to  good  work.  On  unfavorable  days  the 
teacher  should  not  take  up  advance  work  in  the 
difficult  subjects.  He  should  review,  drill  upon, 
or  test  old  work,  give  written  exercises,  etc. 
Extra  effort  should  be  put  forth  on  such  days. 

(g)  Seasonal  rhythm.  The  best  work  can 
be  done  during  the  period  from  December  to 
April.  The  heaviest  work  should  therefore  be 
done  during  the  last  two  months  of  the  first  term 
and  the  first  two  months  of  the  second  term. 
During  the  months  of  June,  July,  and  August, 
fand  to  a  certain  extent  during  the  spring  months 
ihe  children  show  greater  excitement  and  more 
numerous  tendencies  to  irresponsible  action. 
Crimes,  popular  outbursts,  riots,  revolutions, 
etc.,  usually  break  out  during  the  Spring  and 
Summer  months.^ 

8.  Hunger  and  underfeeding.  Where  un- 
derfeeding is  evident,  Le.,  where  children  are 
underweight,  not  so  much  should  be  expected  of 

'See  Hall,  G.  S.,  Adolescence,  2:47.     Leffingwell,  Albert,  I»- 
l       fAience  of  Seasons  upon  Conduct.     See  also  Arnold,  F.,  Sch.  and 
CI.  Man.,  2:Ch.  I,  §  IV,  4. 


ATTENTION  IN  THE  CLASSROOM     251 

them.  If  possible  underfed  or  improperly  fed 
children  should  be  given  a  glass  of  milk  and  a 
biscuit  or  roll  in  the  morning,  at  twelve,  and  at 
the  close  of  the  day.  Such  food  should  be  given 
at  cost  price.  From  a  nutritive  point  of  view 
soup  is  not  worth  much.  As  Barr  points  out, 
'statistics  show  that  10  ounces  of  bread  and  1 
pint  of  skimmed  milk  equal  in  nutriment  a  diet 
composed  of  8  ounces  of  soup,  2  ounces  of  beef, 
2  ounces  of  potatoes,  1  ounce  of  turnips,  4 
ounces  of  bread,  I/q  ounce  of  butter,  and  1  cup 
of  coffee  containing  1  ounce  of  milk  and  ^ 
ounce  of  sugar. '^ 

9.  Obstructed  breathing.  If  the  child 
shows  signs  of  obstructed  breathing,  he  should 
be  examined  and  sent  to  the  school  physician. 
The  teacher  should  also  see  that  the  room  is 
properly  ventilated 

10.  Weak  mindedness.  Instruction  of  weak 
minded  children  should  use  concrete  means  of 
presentation  in  all  the  subjects.  Arithmetic 
should  be  taught  by  means  of  scissor  work,  paper 
folding,  colored  blocks,  etc.  Processes  should 
be  simple  and  should,  if  necessary,  be  reduced 
to  counting.  Counting,  in  fact,  should  be  used 
to  test  the  more  difficult  processes.    In  language 

« Barr,  M.  W.,  Mental  Defectives,  170. 


252  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

work,  pictures,  illustrations,  dramatisations, 
social  activities,  modeling  in  sand,  construction 
work,  etc.,  should  be  made  the  basis  of  oral  and 
written  composition,  spelling,  etc.  Only  one 
simple  topic  in  any  subject  should  be  presented 
at  a  time.  Lesson  periods  should  be  very  short. 
They  may  vary  between  ten  minutes  and  an 
hour.  There  should  be  intermissions  in  which 
games  are  played,  social  activities  conducted, 
'make-believe'  occupations  carried  on,  and  the 
like.  The  surroundings  of  the  children  should 
be  used  as  a  basis  of  these  different  activities. 

11.  Extraneous  stimulation.  As  soon  as 
the  pupil  enters  the  room  he  should  see  on  the 
blackboard  a  general  outline  of  the  work  of  the 
day.  Examples,  map,  etc.,  should  be  on  the 
board.  During  the  lesson  the  teacher  should 
see  that  only  such  material  as  is  necessary 
for  the  work  is  under  the  pupil's  immediate  con- 
trol. The  lesson  should  run  on  without  inter- 
ruptions. There  should  be  no  halts  due  to 
missing  pencils  or  pens,  empty  ink  wells,  etc. 
Before  the  work  of  the  day  begins,  the  teacher 
or  a  monitor  should  arrange  such  supplies  as 
will  be  needed  during  the  day.  The  room  should 
be  tidy.  Whatever  decorations  are  used,  they 
should  be  neatly  placed.    There  should  be  a  gen- 


ATTENTION  IN  THE  CLASSROOM     253 

eral  cleaning-up  at  least  once  a  week.  Loose 
paper,  material,  etc.  should  not  lie  on  the  win- 
dow sills,  or  desks.  The  directions  given  above 
for  preadjustment  will  be  found  useful  in  shut- 
ting out  sources  of  extraneous  stimulation.'^ 

^  Among  others,  see  the  progressive  School  Reports  of  W.  H. 
Maxwell,  New  York,  J.  H.  van  Sickle,  Baltimore,  and  the  Child 
Study  Reports  of  F.  W.  Smedley,  D.  P.  MacMillan,  and  F.  G. 
Bruner,  Chicago.  A  similar  point  of  view  has  been  worked  out 
by  W.  E.  Grady,  in  'Pragmatic  Concepts,  and  the  Educational 
Process,'  New  York.  The  above  chapter  will  probably  be  further 
amplified  as  portion  of  a  volume  on  general  method  in  instruction. 


CHAPTEB  X 
INTEREST  IN  THE  CLASSROOM 

§  I.  POSITIVE  VERSUS  NEGATIVE  INTEREST 

There  is  nothing  very  mysterious  or  uncanny 
in  the  development  of  interest  in  the  classroom. 
In  its  simplest  terms,  the  problem  is  somewhat 
as  follows:  Arrange  the  instruction  and  disci- 
pline in  such  a  manner  that  whatever  the  pupil 
does  ends  in  pleasure,  satisfaction,  ease,  or 
quiescence.  If  the  activity  itself  does  not  so  end, 
then  produce  pleasure,  satisfaction,  ease,  or 
quiescence  by  artificial  means.  It  is  a  mistaken 
idea  that  the  child  should  do  his  work  at  school 
merely  because  the  teacher  says  so,  or  that  some 
/high  and  mighty  virtue  should  impel  him  to  do 
Ithe  work.  The  teacher  himself  asks  for  some 
\  recompense,  and  we  find  very  few  individuals 
Who  will  put  forth  continued  effort  on  the  mere 
vsay-so  of  another.  The  aim  of  the  work  in  part 
is  the  development  of  obedience  to  authority,  of 
respect  for  the  true,  the  good,  and  the  beautiful, 
etc.,  but  the  realisation  of  this  aim  calls  for 
laborious  effort  on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 
Many  of  us,  in  spite  of  the  efforts  of  the  school, 

254 


INTEREST  IN  THE  CLASSROOM       255 

are  still  painfully  lacking  in  many  of  the  virtues 
which  we  too  readily  take  for  granted  in  the 
child.  We  must  begin  from  lower  levels,  and 
appeal  to  bases,  which,  from  a  more  advanced 
stage,  might  seem  somewhat  crass  and  selfish. 

If  the  work  itself  does  not  end  in  pleasure, 
satisfaction,  etc.,  and  if  the  teacher  does  not  usb 
artificial  means  to  secure  a  pleasurable  or  satisX 
f  ying  result,  then  the  work  becomes  a  drudgery 
which  is  done  to  avoid  some  greater  evil,  as,  de- 
tention, nagging,  corporal  punishment,  and  the 
like.  The  principal,  the  parent,  the  truant  offi- 
cer, and  the  police  court  are  then  called  into 
service  to  browbeat  parent  and  child,  and  by 
threat  of  fine  or  imprisonment,  to  coerce  the  child 
to  attend  to  his  work  at  school.  Many  cases  of 
truancy  will  always  be  found,  no  matter  what 
the  school  can  do  either  positively  or  negatively. 
But  the  artificial  conditions  which  exist,  in  which 
the  children  consider  the  school  somewhat  as  a 
necessary  evil,  would  hardly  be  found  if  the 
school  made  a  systematic  attempt  to  use  positive 
instead  of  negative  interest.  There  is  no  inher- 
ent virtue  in  doing  a  task  because  the  completion 
of  such  a  task  will  relieve  the  child  from  coercion, 
punishment,  or  what  not.  By  association  the 
child  will  not  be  led  to  care  for  the  work.    If  the 


256  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

task  itself  is  disagreeable,  it  will  have  little  power 
of  its  own  to  impel  the  child  to  continue  it,  or  to 
attempt  it  again.  No  matter  how  necessary  the 
work  may  be,  if  the  child  does  not  see  the  neces- 
sity of  it,  and  if  the  efforts  put  forth  lead  to 
nothing  positive  in  the  way  of  pleasure,  ease, 
satisfaction,  etc.,  the  pupil  will  not  feel  impelled 
to  strive  along  similar  lines. 

Where  the  children  have  proper  homes,  and 
parents  who  are  interested  in  their  welfare, 
much  of  such  satisfaction,  pleasure,  etc.,  as  is 
needed  in  the  development  of  interest,  is  obtained 
from  relatives,  and  friends  who  look  after  the 
child.  But  where  the  children  do  not  have  such 
congenial  surroundings,  where  families  of  four 
or  five  live  in  two  or  three  rooms,  where  the  boys 
and  girls  roam  the  streets  as  preferable  to  close 
and  stuffy  rooms,  the  home  can  not  be  depended 
upon  to  support  the  school  in  the  development 
of  interest  in  school  studies.  If  the  school  does 
not  use  positive  means  of  developing  interest, 
such  negative  means  as  beating,  detention  at 
court  or  truant  school,  etc.,  are  called  upon 
properly  to  subdue  the  children. 
/  The  use  of  positive  means  does  not  preclude 
/earnest  effort,  or  hard  work.  The  point  is  not 
f  that  the  work  should  be  made  easy,  or  that  every- 


INTEREST  IN  THE  CLASSROOM       257 

thing  which  is  done  in  the  classroom  should  be. 
pleasurable,  but  that  whatever  is  done  by  the 
children,  no  matter  how  difficult  or  disagreeable, 
should  end  in  feelings  of  pleasure  or  satisfactions 
Children  will  be  found  the  last  to  shirk  hard  work 
which  leads  to  a  satisfying  or  pleasurable  ter- 
minus. In  this  sense  interest  does  not  conflict 
with  effort,  but  rather  is  a  means  of  calling  forth 
the  greatest  amount  of  effort. 

§  II.  APPROVAL  AND  DISAPPROVAL 

1.  Exhibition  of  work.  When  the  child  has 
put  forth  effort  on  written  or  similar  work,  it 
should  be  hung  up  on  the  walls  of  the  classroom, 
if  only  for  a  short  time.  The  teacher  should 
arrange  picture  wire,  burlap,  cardboard,  etc.,  so 
that  arithmetic  papers,  drawings,  construction 
work,  and  the  like  can  be  exhibited.  If  the  child 
sees  that  his  efforts  are  thus  appreciated,  he  will 
feel  satisfied  and  pleased,  and  will  strive  all  the 
more  on  following  occasions.  If  his  work  is  not 
quite  what  it  ought  to  be,  refusal  to  hang  it  up 
will  have  the  effect  of  disapproval.  Every 
means  of  approval  which  the  teacher  uses  can 
thus  become  a  means  of  disapproval. 

2.  Commendation.  The  teacher  should  not 
hesitate  to  praise  good  work  whenever  he  sees  it. 

IT 


258  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

He  should  hold  up  a  good  paper  before  the  class 
and  publicly  approve  the  child  who  has  done  it. 
such  expressions  as  'Good,'  'Very  fine,'  'Ex- 
cellent,' and  the  like  should  be  used  again  and 
again.  A  child  will  feel  impelled  to  work  harder 
if  he  sees  that  his  efforts  receive  recognition. 
On  the  other  hand,  continual  faultfinding,  vitu- 
peration, and  nagging  wdll  discourage  him,  and 
finally  make  him  indifferent  and  callous. 

3.  Mark.  Most  of  the  written  work  of  the 
pupils,  as  drawings,  compositions,  test  papers, 
etc.,  should  be  marked  by  either  the  teacher  or  a 
pupil,  and  returned  to  the  children.  If  any 
papers  are  thrown  away,  they  should  not  be 
destroyed  in  the  presence  of  the  children.  Cred- 
its might  be  given  for  neatness,  high  per  cents, 
etc.  Weekly  or  monthly  ratings  in  four  or  five 
groups  of  subjects  should  be  posted  where  all 
the  children  can  see  them.  Honor  rolls,  gold- 
star  charts,  etc.,  are  some  of  the  devices  by  which 
attention  can  be  called  to  special  merit.  If  the 
work  is  not  quite  up  to  the  mark,  withholding  of 
approval  will  act  as  disapproval.  Demerits 
might  also  be  given  to  check  careless  work.^ 

*For  a  full  discussion  of  the  means  of  approval  and  disap- 
proval, see,  Arnold,  F.,  Sch.  avd  CI.  Man.,  l:Ch.  XI. 


INTEREST  IN  THE  CLASSROOM       259 

§  III.  SELF-ACTIVITY 

Wherever  possible  the  child  himself  should  be 
allowed  to  do  the  work  demanded  by  the  lesson. 
Let  the  pupil  fold  paper  to  illustrate  fractions, 
or  arrange  splints  in  groups  for  counting,  or  cut 
out  cardboard  to  illustrate  surface  measurement 
of  a  room,  etc.  Let  him  model  a  map  in  clay 
or  papier  mdche,  cut  it  out  in  colored  paper,  draw 
and  color  it,  fill  in  cities,  rivers,  etc.,  paste  on 
samples  of  products,  form  lists  and  outlines,  and 
the  like.  Let  him  give  sentences  in  grammar, 
fill  in  blanks  with  the  proper  forms,  diagram, 
etc.  Let  him  construct  apparatus  for  experi- 
ments in  science,  bring  in  specimens  for  nature 
study,  and  so  on.  In  addition,  cap  his  efforts 
with  pleasure  and  satisfaction  by  publicly  prais- 
ing his  work,  exhibiting  it,  marking  it,  and  the 
like.  Do  not  force  him  to  sit  quiet  doing  noth- 
ing, while  words,  words,  words,  are  being  show- 
ered upon  him.  The  least  thing  which  will 
relieve  the  children  from  the  too  common  verbi- 
age of  the  classroom  will  stimulate  and  excite 
them  to  put  forth  effort. 

§  IV.  IMITATION 

To  guide  the  self -activity  of  the  children 
along  definite  channels,  models  should  be  shown 


260  ATTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

them.  The  best  model  or  copy  to  stimulate  the 
activity  of  the  children  is  an  actual,  concrete 
situation,  of  the  kind  which  they  are  to  manipu- 
late. Let  them  count  real  money,  or  paper 
money.  Let  them  buy  and  sell  as  men  buy  and 
sell  outside  of  the  school,  with  a  pupil  as  store- 
keeper, and  other  children  as  customers.  Let 
the  pupils  measure  the  walls  of  the  classroom, 
estimate  the  number  of  square  feet  in  the  surface 
of  the  walls,  etc.  Bring  in  real  leaves  and  flow- 
ers for  design  work.  Let  the  children  handle  and 
test  the  kinds  of  stone,  wood,  fur,  cloths,  etc., 
which  form  the  subject  matter  for  geography, 
nature  study,  or  other  lessons.  If  it  is  not  pos- 
sible to  present  concrete  situations,  use  the  next- 
best  means  of  presentation,  as,  colored  illustra- 
tions or  photographs,  diagrams,  outlines,  and 
the  like.  Magazines  now  reproduce  in  color 
many  interesting  views,  and  each  teacher  can 
[readily  collect  a  number  of  such  views.  Pupils, 
too,  can  be  asked  to  get  such  pictures.  History, 
geography,  literature,  reading,  etc.,  will  acquire 
fresh  interest  by  such  means. 

For  review  or  drill,  as  in  arithmetic  or  gram- 
mar, a  problem  should  be  written  on  the  black- 
board and  its  solution  indicated  below.  In 
addition,  the  teacher  should  work  out  the  same 


INTEREST  IN  THE  CLASSROOM       261 

problem,  step  by  step,  in  the  presence  of  the  chil- 
dren. They  should  then  be  set  to  work  a  number 
of  similar  problems.  The  children  who  work  most 
neatly  and  correctly  should  be  conmiended,  and 
their  papers  should  be  exhibited.  Interest  in 
most  of  such  drill  work  will  be  of  a  secondary 
nature.  No  doubt  the  children  have  some  natural 
interest  in  number  work  as  such,  but  this  is 
rather  flitting  and  unreliable.  To  ensure  the 
regularity  and  persistence  which  are  necessary 
in  drill  work,  secondary  interest  must  be  em- 
ployed. The  same  holds  for  other  subjects,  as, 
granmiar,  spelling,  and  the  like. 

§  V.  MULTIPLE   SENSE   APPEAL 

In  the  presentation  of  a  new  lesson  and  in 
drill  on  an  old  one,  appeals  should  be  made  to 
as  many  of  the  senses  as  possible.  The  pupil 
should  see  pictures,  maps,  outlines,  models,  etc. 
He  should  be  allowed  to  visualise  them  for  a 
definite  period.  Essential  aspects  should  be 
pointed  out  to  him,  and  he  should  be  urged  to 
look,  close  his  eyes,  revive  the  impression,  and 
look  again  to  see  how  correctly  he  has  repro- 
duced the  visual  presentation.  He  should  then 
model,  draw,  write,  etc.  Oral  expression  might 
be  required.     After  the  sensory  appeals  have 


262  A^TTENTION  AND  INTEREST 

been  made,  the  pupils  might  be  required  to  ex- 
press themselves  in  composition  form  either 
orally  or  in  writing.  Commendation,  exhibition 
of  work,  etc.,  will  increase  whatever  satsfaction 
or  pleasure  the  work  itself  has  produced. 

§  VI.  INTEREST  AND  THE  CURRICULUM 

vl  Experimental  tests  and  empirical  observation 
yi  the  classroom  will  show  that  pupils  differ  in 
natural  ability  and  talent.  Some  will  be  found 
strong  in  one  group  of  subjects,  others  in  an- 
other group  of  subjects.  Pupils  will  differ  in 
ftheir  ability  in  the  same  subject.  A  pupil  who 
IS  good  in  division,  is  not  necessarily  good  in 
addition  or  multiplication.  One  good  in  gram- 
mar or  composition  may  be  found  weak  in  spell- 
ing or  reading.  We  should  not  strive,  therefore, 
to  do  the  impossible,  to  level  all  differences,  and 
to  create  an  equal  interest  in  all  the  subjects  in 
all  pupils.  The  most  we  can  do  is  to  ask  for 
minimum  requirements  in  such  subjects  as  are 
required  by  society  at  large,  and  to  allow  the 
pupils  to  develop  their  natural  talents  along 
special  lines.  By  approval,  guidance  of  self- 
activity,  presentation  of  the  proper  models,  etc., 
we  can  stimulate  pupils  to  exert  effort  in  all  the 
subjects  to  a  minimum  degree,  and  in  special 


INTEREST  IN  THE  CLASSROOM       263 

subjects  to  a  maximum  degree.     The  minimum 
should  be  the  same  for  all  pupils,  but  the  maxi- 
mum will  differ  according  to  the  ability  and 
inclination  of  the  special  pupil  concerned.   Clas-  j 
sification  and  promotion  should  not  be  based  on  / 
an  average,  but  on  minimum  proficiency  in  most  / 
of  the  subjects,  and  greater  proficiency  in  one  or 
two  in  which  the  pupil  shows  greatest  interest. 
The   problem   of  the   teacher   is   to   develop 
natural  tendencies  into  definite  interests.     The 
bases  to  which  he  must  appeal  are  the  instincts 
and  feelings  of  the  child.    Appeal  to  the  child's 
interest  is  possible  only  after  some  interest  has 
been  already  developed.    The  child  does  not  come 
with  interests  ready-made  to  which  appeal  can 
be  made.     Rather,  he  comes  with  blind  and  in- 
choate tendencies,  wild  strivings,   formless  in-* 
stincts,  which  the  teacher  must  direct  and  shape. 
By  presentation  of  models,  by  guidance  of  the 
child's  self -activity,  by  capping  his  efforts  with 
satisfaction,  the  teacher  fashions  the  instincts  of 
the  pupil,  shows  him  that  his  efforts  are  worth 
while,  and  develops  interests  which  can  be  of  . 
service  in  the  direction  of  further  effort.^ 

^  Compare  DeGarmo,  C,  Interest  and  Education. 


INDEXES 


INDEX  OF  NAMES 


Amberg,  E.,  65. 
Akgell,  J.  R.,  50,  136. 
Arnold,   F.,  20,   101,    129,   191, 
247,  250,  258. 

Bagehot,  W.,  223. 

Bagley,  W.  C,  248. 

Baldwin,  J.  M.,   20,    135,   150, 

162,  164,  165,  187,  223. 
Barnes,  E.,  169. 
Barr,  M.  W.,  251. 
Beddard,  a.  p.,  12,  173. 
Bettmann,  S.,  62. 
Binet,   a.,   136,  169. 
Birch,  L.  G.,  44,  78. 
BoNSER,   F.   G.,   136. 
Bradley,  F.  H.,  179. 
Breese,  B.  B.,  78. 
Bruner,  F.  G.,  253. 
Bryant,  S.,  101. 
Burgerstein,  L.,  154. 

Campbell,  W.  C,  146. 
Calkins,  M.  W.,  101,  179,  187. 
Cattell,  J.  M.,  47,  51,  56,  101. 
Chamberlain,  A.  F.,  168. 
Chwistek,  L.,  31. 
Claparede,    E.,   101. 
Clark,  J.   B.,  188. 
Compayre,  G.,  20. 
Cron,  L.,  40,  52,  75. 

Darlington,   L.,   78. 
Darwin,   C,   162. 
Dearborn,  G.  V.,  49. 


Dearborn,  W.  F.,  141. 
De  Garmo,  C,  112,  263. 
Delabarre,    E.    B.,    136. 
Descartes,   R.,  26. 
Dewey,  J.,  187. 
DiETZE,  G.,  41. 
DWELSHAtrVERS,    G.,    55. 

Eckener,  H.,  31. 
Edkins,   J.    S.,   12,    173. 
Ehrenfels,  C.  von,  187. 

FiNzi,  J.,  40. 
fortlage,  k.,  26. 
Frazer,   a.,  27. 

Galloway,  E.  C,  31. 
Galton,  F.,   223. 
Gordon,  K.,  46. 
Grady,  W.  E.,  253. 
Griffing,  H.,  35,  53. 

Hall,  G.  S.,  250. 
Hamilton,  W.,  27. 
Hammer,  B.,  31. 
Heinrich,  W.,  31,    139. 
Henmon,  V.   A.   C,  51. 
Herb  ART,   J.   F.,   96. 
Heumann,  G.,  65. 
Hill,  L.,  12,  173. 
Hobhouse,  L.  T.,  162. 
Howell,  W.   H.,   91,   108,   111, 

125,   172. 
HuEY,  E.  B.,  141,  157. 
Hylan,  J.  P.,  31,  38,  41,  65. 


267 


268 


James,   W., 

170. 
Jastrow,  J.,   145. 
Jevons,  W.   S.,    188. 
JoDL,  F.,  27. 
JiJDD,  C.  H.,  140,  175. 

KAFEMANlf,    R.,    73. 

KntKPATRiCK,   E.   A.,  162. 
Kleinknecht,  H.,  40,  77. 
KoHN,  H.  E.,  179. 
KozAKi,  N.,  27. 
Kraepelin,  E.,  40,  52,  65,  75. 
Kriebig,  J.  C,  187. 
Krohn,  W.  O.,  41. 
KUELPE,  O.,  27. 

Lange,  N.,  149. 
Leffingwell,  a.,  250. 
Lehmann,  a.,  31. 
Lindley,  E.  H.,  65,  141. 
Lipps,  T.,  187. 
LoEB,  J.,  162. 
LoTZE,  R.  H.,  26. 
Lough,  J.  E.,  27,  51,  101. 

McAllister,  140,  175. 
MacDougall.,  R.,  136,  151. 
McDouGALL.,  W.,  83,   106,   107, 

118,  179. 
McGamble,  E.  a.,  136. 
MACLEOD,  J.  R.,   12,   173. 
Mac  Millan,  D.  P.,  253. 
Marbe,  K.,  31. 
Marshall,  H.  R.,  20. 
Martitjs,  G.,  55. 
Maxwell,  W.  H.,  253. 
Meinong,  a.  von,  187. 
Mentz,  p.,  136. 
Messer,  a.,  150. 


INDEX  OF  NAMES 

134,    162,    164, 


Messmer,   O.,   54. 
Meumann,  E.,  136,  154. 
Mill,  J.,  152. 
Morgan,   L.,   49,    162. 
Mover,  F.   E.,  44,  78. 
Mtjnsterberg,   H.,   27,   57,    103, 

146,  149,   165,  187. 
Mum,  W.,  15. 
Myers,  C.  S.,  81,  245. 

Nayrac,   J.    P.,    178. 
Netolitzky,    a.,    154. 

O'Shea,    M.    v.,    154,    248. 

Pace,  E.,  31. 
Pembry,  M.  S.,  12. 
PiLLSBURY,  W.,  27,  32,  34,  178. 
Pryer,  W.,  20,  198. 

Reis,  J.,  75. 
Rivers,  W.  H.  R.,  65. 
RoERiCH,  E.,   178. 
Ross,  E.  A.,  223. 

Seashore,  E.  C,  32. 

Serol,  M.,  179. 

Shand,  a.  F.,  179. 

Shinn,  M.  W.,  196. 

Sidis,  B.,  171. 

Slaughter,  J.  W.,  32. 

Smedley,  F.  W.,  253. 

Spikdler,  F.   N.,  49. 

Steele,  W.  M.,  140,  175. 

Stevens,    H.    C,    136. 

Stricker,  S.,  149. 

Stout,  G.  F.,  20,  132,  151,  165, 

187. 
Stumpf,  C,  27,  187. 
Sully,  J.,  187. 


INDEX  OF  NAMES 


269 


Swift,  E.  J.,  78. 

Talbot,  E.  B.,  44,  78. 
Tasde,  G.,  223. 
Taylor,  R.  W.,  32. 
Thompson,   H.   B.,  50,   136. 
Thorndike,  E.  L.,  13,  101,  163. 
TiTCHENER,    E.   B.,    13,   27,   33, 

33,  81,  82,  112,  178,  187. 
Trautscholdt,  M.,  101. 
tscherning,  m.,  138. 

Van  Biehvliet,  J.  J.,  136. 
Van  Sickle,  J.  H.,  253. 


Vaschide,  N.,  136. 
VoGT,  R.,  75. 
Volkmank,  W.,  187. 

Waller,  A.  D.,  109. 
Warner,  F.,  154. 
Weygandt,  W.,  59,  66,  70. 
WiERSMA,  E.,  32. 
WiESER,  F.  von,  188. 
Wood  worth,  R.   S.,  165. 
WuNDT,  W.,  20,  27,  96,  101. 

ZoKEFF,  p.,  136. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS 


Accommodation,   138. 

Acquired  interest,  202,  221,  225. 

Activity,  259. 

Adaptation,  54. 

Age,  53,  84,  249. 

Apperceptive    attention,    120. 

Appetition,  183,  204. 

Approval,  257. 

Arithmetic,  231. 

Arrest,  43,  84. 

Assimilative    attention,    120. 

Assimilation,    96,    111,    120. 

Association,  99,  100,  113,  128, 
134. 

Attention,  defined,  176,  interest 
and,  226,  outline  of  aspects, 
176,  outline  of  conditions,  178, 
outline  of  stages,  177. 

Attitude,  motor,  133,  149,  157, 
168,   183,   185,    192,   204,   225. 

Aversion,  204. 

Blickpunkt,  26. 

Cerebral    level,    108,    118,    125, 

126,  133. 
Circulation,  137. 
Clearness,  25,  80,  87,  88. 
Cohesiveness,  132. 
Commendation,  257. 
Complexity,  45,  84. 
Complication,  96,  111. 
Comprehensiveness,  132. 
Conation,  183,  192. 
Consciousness,   study   of,   5. 


Copy,  260. 

Credits,  258. 

Curiosity,  188,  190,  211,  224. 

Curriculutn,   interest    and,    262. 

Daily  program,  247. 
Deliberation,  101,  115,  124,  170. 
Desire,  189,  190,  212,  224. 
Disapproval,   257. 
Distinctness,  25,  80,  87,  88. 
Distraction,  43,  75,  80,  86,  252. 
Drill,  245. 

Effort,    feeling  of,    103. 

interest  and,   228,  257. 
Emotion,  50,   130. 
Environment,  223. 
Expectation,  189,  190,  212,  224. 
Extraneous  stimulation,  75,  86, 
252. 

Facilitation,  43,  84,  105,  238. 
Fatigue,  58,  60,  61,  85,  153,  160, 

171,  247. 
Feeling,   48,   186,   interest   and, 

206,  227. 
Field  of  attention,   34,  40,   41. 
Fixation,  139. 
Fluctuation,   30,   81,   90. 
Focus,  15,  18. 
Free  revival,  98,  113,  210. 
Frontal  level,   110,   127. 


Geography,  234. 


270 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS 


271 


History,  236. 
Hunger,    70,   250. 

Ideal,  8,  13,  15,  96,  111,  119, 
128,  208,  225. 

Ideomotor  action,  162. 

Imitation,  259. 

Individual   differences,   262. 

Inhibition,  152. 

Instinct,  194. 

Instinctive   attention,   119,    162. 

Interest,  attention  and,  226, 
curriculum  and,  262,  defined, 
224,  effort  and,  228,  257,  feel- 
ing and,  206,  227,  outline  of 
aspects,  225,  outline  of  stages, 
225. 

Intensity,  27. 

Junction,  point  of,  6. 

Margin,  15. 

Means,  123. 

Mental   defectives,   73,   251. 

Model,  260. 

Motor  attitude,  133,  149,  157, 
168,  183,  185,  192,  204,  225. 
control,  150,  158,  diffusion, 
141,    innervation,    145. 

Multiple  sense  appeal,  261. 

Nature  study,  237. 
Negative  interest,  198,  201,  203, 
226,  254. 

Object,  3,  6,  15,  18,  231. 
Objective,  6. 

Obstructed  breathing,  72,  351. 
Organic  changes,  136,  154,  166. 
Organisation,  132. 


Pain,  48,  194. 

Pause,  64,  86,  247. 

Periods  of  recitation,  248. 

Persistence,  29,  80,  87,  88. 

Pleasure,  48,  194. 

Positive  interest,  200,  203,  Q26, 

254. 
Possible,  10,  14. 
Powers  of  attention,  42. 
Preadjustment,  54,  85,  242. 
Primacy,   130. 
Primary  interest,  199,  217,  225. 

Quality  of  impression,  50,  240. 

Reading,   140,  233,  234. 

Real,  6,  12. 

Recency,  130. 

Recognition    of   letters,    words, 

etc.,  47. 
Reflex  arc,  104,  125. 
Reinforcement,  56,  85,  243. 
Repetition,  130,  131,  245. 
Respiration,   137. 
Rest,  64,  247. 
Retinal  rivalry,  78. 

School  subjects,  248. 
Seasonal   rhythm,  250. 
Secondary  attention,  121. 
Secondary    interest,    199,    218, 

225. 
Self-activity,  259. 
Sense  appeal,  261. 
Sensory  changes,  138,  156,  167. 
Simplicity,  45,  84. 
Spelling,  232. 
Subject-object   relation,    3,    15, 

16,  18. 
Siunmation  of  stimuli,  51. 


272 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS 


Time,  52,  84,  341. 
Truancy,  255. 

Underfeeding,  70,  250. 
Unity,    34,   82,    93,    visual,   34, 
auditory,  40,  tactile,  41. 


Value,  187. 
Vasoconstriction,    137. 
Vividness,  130. 
Voluntary  attention,  121,  164. 

Weakmindedncss,  73,  86,  251. 
Weather,  250. 


OF  THE  \. 

^       OF  '  ^ 


FELIX  ARNOLD'S 

Text  Book  of  School  and  Class 
Management  cioth  12  mo„  $i.»5  net, 

"The  book  enters  into  every  detail  and  every  phase  of  school 
instruction  and  management  and  points  out  in  kindly  fashion 
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cipals and  teachers  in  instruction,  discipline  and  supervision. 
When  it  comes  to  consideration  of  the  child  it  enters  upon  a 
deep  psychological  study  and  analysis,  citing  the  different  influ- 
ences operating  upon  the  mind  of  the  young  and  its  inherent 
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ambition  and  class  spirit,  vices  and  their  best  modes  of  correc- 
tion. The  author  closes  his  book  with  this  wise  admonition : 
*We  complain  of  the  conduct  of  the  children  in  the  school;  we 
cry  out  against  their  behaviour  out  of  school,  yet  we  send  them 
forth  like  Noah's  dove,  without  a  light  to  guide  them  or  a  sup- 
port on  which  they  can  rest.  The  school  should  do  its  part  in 
giving  the  child  right  ideals,  proper  habits  and  a  firm  moral 
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The  problem  is  one  which  can  not  be  ignored.'  " 

— San  Francisco  Chronicle. 

"  'School  and  Class  Management'  is  the  best  work  on  the  sub- 
ject that  I  have  ever  read.  Every  teacher  should  study  it  and 
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— J.  M.  WiLLARD^  Principal  of  Philadelphia  N.  S.  for  Girls. 

"I  believe  the  book  is  one  that  should  be  in  the  library  of 
every  principal.  Its  treatment  of  the  relation  of  principal  and 
teachers,  the  duties  of  principal  and  the  treatment  of  conduct 
as  given  in  this  book  are  such  as  to  impel  one's  interest  and 
can  not  but  be  read  with  profit.  It  seems  to  me  that  the  book 
should  have  a  place  in  training  class  work." 

— Mr.  J.  W.  Reed,  Principal  High  School,  Dansville,  N.  Y, 

"It  is  a  most  comprehensive  work,  teeming  with  practical 
suggestions  toward  character-building  and  doing  right  for  right's 
sake.  It  shows  deep  reading  on  the  part  of  the  author.  It 
shows  more,  a  deep  sympathy  for  children,  for  whom  no  con- 
scientious teacher  feels  that  he  can  do  enough.  It  shows  ways 
and  means  leading  to  cheerful  obedience  on  the  part  of  a  pupil 
to  a  teacher  whose  every  word  and  action  bespeak  his  love  for 
the  little  ones." 
— Mr.  John  J.  O'Reilly,  Principal  P.  S.  No.  86,  New  York  City. 


Published  by 

THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

64-66  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York 


A  LIST  OF  BOOKS  FOR  TEACHERS 


ARNOLD,  FiLix.  A  Text  Book  of  School  and  Class  Management, 
Theory  and  Practice.  Cloth.     12mo.     xxii+409  paget.     Index.     $l.i5  net. 

BAGLEY.  William  Chandler.    Classroom  Manaiiement:  Its  Principles 

and  Technique.    By   William  Chandler   Bagley.  Superintendent  of  the 
Training  Department,  State  Normal  School,  Oswego.  N.  Y. 

Cloth.     12mo.    xvii+352  Paget.     $1.25  not. 
The  Edacative  Process.  Cloth.     12mo.     xix+358  pages.     $1.25  net. 

BROWN,  John  Franklin.  The  American  Hiifh  School.  By  John  Frank- 
lin Brown,  Ph.D.,  formerly  Professor  in  Education  and  Inspector  of  High 
Schools  for  the  State  University  of  Iowa. 

Cloth,    xii+498  pages.     12mo.     $1.25  net. 

CHUBB.  Percival.  The  Teachinit  ot  Eni{lish.  By  Percival  Chubb.  Prin- 
cipal of  High  School  Department,  Ethical  Culture  School.  New  York. 

Cloth.     12mo.     xvii+411  pages.     $1.00  net. 

COLLAR,  George,  and  CROOK.  Charles  W.  School  Mana|{ement  and 
Methods  of  Instruction.  By  George  Collar  and  Charles  W.  Crook. 
London.  Cloth.     12mo.     viii-\-336  pages.     $1.00  net. 

CRONSON,  Bbrnard.      Methods   in   Elementary  School  Siudies.      By 

Bernard  Cronson.  A.B..  Ph.D..  Principal  of  Public  School  No.  3.  Borough 
of  Manhattan.  City  of  New  York.  Cloth.    Umo.    167  pages.    $1.25  net. 

——Pupil  Self -Government.  Cloth.    12mo.    ix+107  pages.     $.90  net. 

CUBBERLEY.  Syllabus  of  Lectures  on  the  History  of  Education.  With 
Selected  Bibliographies  and  Suggested  Readings.  By  Ellwood  P.  Cub- 
berley.     Second  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.     In  two  parts. 

Part  I,  v+129  pages,  $1.50  net;    Part  II,  xv+361  pages,  $1.50  net. 
Complete  in  one  volume,  $2.60  net. 

DE  GARMO,  Charles.  Interest  and  Education.  By  Charles  De  Garmo, 
Professor  of  the  Science  and  Art  of  Education  in  Cornell  University. 

Cloth.     12mo.    xvii+230  pages.     $1.00  net. 
—The  Principles  of  Secondary  Education. 

Fol.  I,  Studies.     Cloth.     Umo.    xii+299  pages.     $1.25  net. 

Vol.  II,  Processes  of  Instruction,     xii+200  pages.     $1.00  net. 

Fol.  Ill,  Processes  of  Instruction.     In  press 

DUTTON.  Samuel  T.    Social  Phases  of  Education  in  the  School  and  th* 

Home.       By    Samuel  T.    Dutton,   Superintendent  of  the  Horace  Mann 
Schools.  New  York.  Cloth.     12mo.     ix+2S9  pages.     $1.25  net. 

DUTTON  &  SNEDDEN.  The  Administration  of  Public  Education  in  the 
United  States.  By  Samuel  Train  Dutton.  A.M..  and  David  Snedden, 
Ph.D.    With  an  Introduction  by  Nicholas  Murray  Butler,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

Cloth.     viii+ 595  pages.     Bibliography.     Index.     Umo.     $1.75  met. 

FITCH.  Six  Joshua.  Educational  Aims  and  Methods.  Lectures  and  Ad- 
dresses by  Sir  Joshua  Fitch,  late  Her  Majesty's  Inspector  of  Training 
Colleges.  Cloth.    xii+ 448  pages.    Umo.    $1.25  net. 

Lectures  on  Teachinif.  Cloth.    xiU+393  pages.     Umo.     $1.00  net. 

GRAVES.  Frank  P.  A  History  of  Education  before  the  Middle  Atfes.  By 

Frank  Pierrepont  Graves,  Ohio  State  University. 

Cloth.     320  pages.    Bibliography.     $1.10  net. 

HALLECK.  Reuben  Post.  The  Education  of  the  Central  Nervous  System. 

A  Study  of  Foundations,  especially  of  Sensory  and  Motor  Training.    By 
Reuben  Post  Halleek.  M.A.  (Yale). 

Cloth.    Umo.    xii+258  pages.    $1.00  u*t. 


A  LIST  OF  BOOKS   FOR  TEACHERS— C(>»//«ii^^ 


HANUS.  Paul  H.  A  Modern  School.  By  Paul  H.  Hanus.  Professor  of  the 
History  and  Art  of  Teaching  in  Harvard  University. 

Cloth.     Umo    x+306  fagts.     $1.25  net. 

Educational  Aims  and  Educational  Values.    By  Paul  H.  Hanus. 

Cloth.     Umo.     wii-f  221  pagts.     $1.00  net. 

HERBART.  John  Frederick.    Outlines   of   Educational   Doctrine.      By 

John  Frederick  Herbart.  Translated  by  Alex.  F.  Lange,  Associate  Profes- 
sor of  English  and  Scandinavian  Philology  and  Dean  of  the  Faculty  of  the 
College  of  Letters.  University  of  California.  Annotated  by  Charles  De- 
Garmo,  Professor  of  the  Science  and  Art  of  Education,  Cornell  University. 

Cloth.     Large  12mo.    xi+334  pages.     $1.25  net. 

HORNE,  Herman  Harrell.  The  Philosophy  of  Education.  By  Herman 
Harrell  Home,  Assistant  Professor  of  Philosophy  and  Pedagogy  in  Dart- 
mouth College.  Cloth.    8vo.    xvii+295  pages.     $1.50  net 

The  Psycholoi{ical  Principles  of  Education.  By  Herman  Harrell  Home. 

Cloth.     Umo.    xm+435  pages.     $1.75  net. 

HUEY.    Edmund  B.     The  Psychology  and  ¥cdadoiy  of  Reading.     By 

Professor  Edmund  B.  Huey,  of  the  Western  University  of  Pennsylvania. 

Cloth,     Umo.    xvi+469  pages.     $1,40  nef 

JONES.  Olivb  M..  LEARY,  Eleanor  G..  and  QUISK,  Agnes  E.  Teach- 
inft  Children  to  Study.    The  Group  System  applied. 

Illustrated.     Cloth.     viii-\- 193  pages.      12mo.     $.S0  net. 

KILPATRICK.    Van    Evrie.      Departmental   Teachinfi   in    Elementary 

Schools.    By  Van  Evrie  Kilpatrick. 

Cloth.     12mo.    xiii+130  pages.     Umo.     $.60  net. 

KIRKPATRICK.  Edwin  A.  Fundamentals  of  Child  Study.  By  Professor 
Edwin  A.  Kirkpatrick,  Principal  of  State  Normal  School,  Fitchburg,  Mass. 

Cloth.     Umo.    xxi+384  pages.     $1.25  net. 
MAJOR.  David  R.    First  Steps  in  Mental  Growth.    A  Series  of  Studies  in 
the  Psychology  of  Infancy.   By  David  R.  Major,  Professor  of  Education  in 
the  Ohio  State  University. 

Cloth  xiv+360  pages.     Umo.     $1.25  net. 

THE  McMURRY  SERIES  Each,  cloth,  izm: 

General  Method. 

^The  Elements  of  General  Method.    By  Charles  A.  McMurry. 

323  pages.     $.90  net. 

The  Method  of  the  Recitation.      By  Charles  A.  McMurry  and    Frank 

M.  McMurry,  Professor  of  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching,  Teach- 
ers College.  Columbia  University.  xi+329  pages.    $.90  net. 

Special  Method.     By  Charles  A.  McMurry. 

Special  Method  in  Primary  Readlni{  and  Oral  Work  with  Stories. 

vii+103  pages.  $.60  net 

Special  Method  in  the  Readlntf  of  Eniillsh  Classics. 

vi+254  pages.  $.75  net. 

Special  Method  in  Lantfuatfes  in  the  Eiifht  Grades. 

viii+192  pages.  $.70  net. 

Course  of  Study  In  the  Eltfht  Grades. 

Fa/./.        Grades  I  to  ir.       vii+236  pages.  $.75  net. 

Vol.  II.      Grades  F"  t0  VIII.      v+226  pages.  $.75  net. 

Special  Method  in  History.                                            vii+291  pages.  $.75  net. 

Special  Method  In  Arithmetic.                                   vH+225  pages.  $.70  net. 

Special  Method  in  Oeoitraphy.                                    xi+217  pages.  $.70  net. 

Special  Method  in  Elementary  Science.                  ix+75  pages.  $.75  net. 

Nature  Study   Lessons    for    Primary   Grades.      By    Mrs.    Lida    B. 

McMurry.  with  an  introduction  by  Charles  A.  McMurry. 

xi+191  pages.  $.60  m$t. 


A  LIST  OF  BOOKS  FOR  TEACHERS— Con/mw^^ 


MONROE,  Paul.  A  Brief  Course  In  the  History  of  Education.  By  Paul 
Monroe,  Ph.D.,  Professor  in  the  History  of  Education,  Teachers  College, 
Columbia  University.  CJoth.     8vo.  xviii+409  pages.     $1.25  net. 

-^  A  Text-Book  In  the  History  of  Education. 

Cloth,     xxfii+277  Paget.     12mo.     $1.90  net. 

— —  A  Source  Book  of  the  History  of  Education.    For  the  Greek  and 

Roman  Period.  Cloth.    xiii+SlS  pages.    8vo.     $1.25  net. 

O'SHEA,  M.  V.  Dynamic  Factors  in  Education.  By  M.  V.  O'Shea,  Pro- 
fessor of  the  Science  and  Art  of  Education,  University  of  Wisconsin. 

Cloth.     12mo.     xiii+320  pages.     $1.25  net. 

— —  Lin|{vlstic  Development  and  Education. 

Cloth.     12mo.     xvii+ 347  pages.     $1.25  net. 

PARK,  Joseph  C.    Educational  Woodworking  for  Home  and  School.     By 

Joseph  C.  Park,  State  Normal  and  Training  School.  Oswego,  N.  Y. 

Cloth.     12mo.     xiii+310  pages,  illus.     $1.00  net. 

PERRY.  Arthur  C.  The  Manaitement  of  a  City  School.  By  Arthur  C. 
Perry,  Jr..  Ph.D..  Principal  of  Public  School  No,  8s,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Cloth.     12mo.  viU+3S0  pages.     $1.25  met. 

ROWE,  Stuart  H.  The  Physical  Nature  of  the  Child.  By  Dr.  Stuart  H. 
Rowe.  Professor  of  Psychology  and  the  History  of  Education.  Training 
School  for  Teachers,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Cloth.     12mo.     vi+211  pages.     $.90  net 

SMITH,    David  E.     The  Teaching   of  Elementary    Mathematics.      By 

David  E.  Smith,  Professor  of  Mathematics,  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
University.  Cloth.    xv-\-312  pages.     12mo.     $1.00  net. 

SNEDDEN  AND  ALLEN.     School  Reports  and  School  Efficiency.     By 

David  S.   Snedden,  Ph.D.,  and  William  H.  Allen,  Ph.D.    For  the  New 
York  Committee  on  Physical  Welfare  of  School  Children. 

Cloth.     12mo.     xi+183  pages.     $1.50  net. 

VANDEWALKER,  Nina  C.    The  Kindergarten  in  American  Education. 

By  Nina  C.  Vandewalker,  Director  of  Kindergarten  Training  Department. 
Milwaukee  State  Normal  School. 

Cloth,     xiii+274  pages.     Portr.,  index,  12  mo.     $1.25  net. 

WARNER.  Francis.    The  Study  of  Children  and  Their  School  Training. 

By  Francis  Warner.  Cloth.    Kix-\-264  pages.    12mo.    $1.00  net. 

WINTERBURN  andBARR.  Methods  in  Teachinit.  Being  the  Stockton 
Methods  in  Elementary  Schools.  By  Mrs.  Rosa  V.  Winterburn,  of  Los 
Angeles,  and  James  A.  Barr,  Superintendent  of  Schools  at  Stockton,  Cal. 

Cloth.     xii-\-3S5  pages.  12mo.     $1.25  net. 


Published  By 

THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

64-66  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York 


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THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  50  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $1.00  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


MAR  12  1934 


REC'D  to 


^gP  26T340 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


